Human-driven abiotic and biotic changes have exceeded what can be shaped by nature, defining the Anthropocene epoch strikingly characterized by species translocation beyond their native regions by human activities (Waters et al. 2016). The translocated species naturalize in new regions, causing significant environmental issues, social problems and economic losses (Lambertini et al. 2011; Bellard et al. 2016). Global changes have been occurring at an unprecedented rate, and human-mediated exchanges of non-native species have been intensifying for many centuries (Hulme et al. 2009; Blackburn et al. 2015), leading to a continuous rise in the number of non-native species across taxonomic groups, with no evidence of saturation in their overall accumulation (Seebens et al. 2017). The rapid expansion of global trade, transportation infrastructure, and land-use intensification has accelerated the process of human-driven biological invasions (Pauchard and Alaback 2004; Hulme et al. 2009; Seebens et al. 2015), subsequently reshaping biogeographic realms (Capinha et al. 2015; Lewis and Maslin 2015), and has accelerated regional biotic homogenization (Winter et al. 2009). Biological invasions incurred an average annual cost of US$26.8 billion from 1970 to 2017, with management costs accounting for an important proportion of this total (Diagne et al. 2021). Moreover, their negative impacts on the ecological environment and human well-being are increasingly severe, imposing substantial burdens on local development, particularly in developing countries (Mack et al. 2000; Pyšek et al. 2020).

A deeper understanding of the biogeography of non-native species is essential for describing invasion processes. Identifying non-native species, clarifying their key invasion traits, and compiling comprehensive regional inventories provide a reliable foundation for analyses of species diversity and biogeography (Khuroo et al. 2012; Inderjit et al. 2018; Pyšek et al. 2018). Assembling regional checklists of non-native species depends on rigorous field surveys and reliable basic data (Baard and Kraaij 2014; Ansong et al. 2019), which will strengthen the understanding of global invasion patterns, drivers, and consequences (Pyšek et al. 2008; van Kleunen et al. 2019; Omer et al. 2021).

Exacerbated by global change, biological invasions pose a severe threat to China, where the number of non-native species has been heavily underestimated (Wan and Yang 2016; Peng et al. 2025). Over the past decades, increasing research efforts on biological invasions in China have provided a foundation for compiling a checklist of non-native species. A comprehensive accounting of non-native species, coupled with the identification of their ecological and invasion traits, is fundamental to effective management of biological invasions. The emergence of standardized terminology and integration workflows has also facilitated the development of national checklists of non-native species (Seebens et al. 2020). Therefore, by considering both population size and invasion consequences, here we first identified non-native insect species in China and assembled an integrated checklist. Then, we described the species diversity, spatial patterns and invasion trends. Our objective is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of non-native insect species and to identify their spatial and temporal patterns of invasion in China. This regional assessment will strengthen the management of biological invasions in China and contribute to a more balanced and comprehensive understanding of global invasion patterns.

The number of recorded non-native insects in China is much lower than that in Europe and North America, which may partly be explained by the fact that Europe and North America are recognized as hotspots for non-native insects (van Kleunen et al. 2015; Seebens et al. 2017). Developed trade and intensive human activities have further facilitated the spread of species in Europe and North America (Dawson et al. 2017). In addition, Europe has well-established systems for species documentation, whereas relatively less effort has been devoted to recording non-native species in China, which may contribute to the underestimation of the actual diversity of non-native insects in China (DAISIE 2009). In recent years, strengthened quarantine measures in China have also served as an important line of defense. Predators and parasitoids are less frequently represented in current checklists, possibly reflecting the relatively limited documentation of these groups in the available literature. The bias highlights the need for greater attention to non-native insects beyond major agricultural pests in order to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of biological invasions. Coleoptera is a dominant insect group worldwide, which contributes to its leading role in non-native insect groups (Bouchard et al. 2017). The ecological traits of wood-boring and stored-product Coleoptera also promote their invasions, as traded commodities provide suitable shelters that protect them during transport (Bouchard et al. 2017). A greater variety of invasion pathways and habitats, higher reproductive capacity and voltinism, and more complex genomic features jointly contribute to the higher invasion success of non-native insects (Zhao et al. 2023). Several important genera, such as Bactrocera, have already been introduced to and successfully invaded different regions of China due to their ecological advantages and have caused significant economic losses (Wang et al. 2023; Zhao et al. 2024). Some non-native insects can be introduced with plants, and they are more difficult to detect, increasing their likelihood of successful invasion (van Kleunen et al. 2015; Liebhold et al. 2018). Groups with a larger number of non-native species, such as Coleoptera, already hold a dominant status and pose substantial invasion risks. In contrast, groups with fewer recorded species, such as Thysanoptera and Orthoptera, have received less attention but still carry considerable potential for future invasions.

The dominant contribution of Asia suggests that geographic barriers play an important role in shaping the transport of non-native insects, and that reduced barriers and shorter geographic distance can facilitate invasions (Zhang et al. 2024). The significant contributions of North America highlight the influence of frequent and developed intercontinental communication and human activities (Chapman et al. 2017). North America is a hotspot of non-native insects, which also contributes to this pattern (Seebens et al. 2017). It also highlights the importance of climate matching, as these regions share several major climate types with Asia (Omer et al. 2021). Its unique island faunas make Oceania an uncommon source region, and species originating there may face limitations in naturalizing elsewhere.

The spatial pattern of first domestic records is highly consistent with the current distribution pattern, with southeastern regions exhibiting significantly higher densities of non-native species than northwestern regions (Wu et al. 2006; Chen et al. 2021). Human activities such as economic development and trade largely shape this pattern, a phenomenon also observed in studies of non-native plants in Japan, where invasion hotspots coincide with highly developed urban areas (Kusumoto et al. 2021). Many studies have demonstrated the strong relationship between human activities and biological invasions (Hulme 2009; Liebhold et al. 2016). More frequent and intense activities, as well as increased trade activities in these regions, such as Guangdong and Hainan, can facilitate the invasion process. Taiwan’s unique biogeographic composition makes it particularly susceptible to newly arriving non-native species. At the same time, the strong public and scientific interest in biodiversity research and conservation in Taiwan cannot be overlooked. Yunnan and Xinjiang had more records of first domestic detections, which may be explained by the higher intensity of cross-regional activities resulting from their shared borders with multiple countries. Border regions also tend to face higher risks of biological invasions (Zhang et al. 2024). Most non-native insects are translocated through contaminant or stowaway pathways, highlighting the key role of cross-border transport activities in the invasion process. These pathways often represent the final route through which insect invasions occur (Peng et al. 2025).

The continuously increasing temporal trend is consistent with our expectations and is strongly associated with intensifying human activities. This unsaturated state implies the likelihood of further invasions (Seebens et al. 2017). The low number of first records in the 1990s may be a consequence of limited awareness of invasive species and limited records, as well as the economic and social constraints of that period. Increased attention to non-native species has also resulted in more records, contributing to the rising trend. Rapid socioeconomic development has clearly facilitated the invasion process, as evidenced by the marked increases in first-record rates after 1978 and 2001. Following China’s landmark Reform and Opening policy (in 1978) and its subsequent accession to the World Trade Organization (in 2001), the resulting surge in economic growth greatly expanded opportunities for non-native insects to be transported into China and subsequently establish themselves as invaders (Wan and Yang 2016). However, existing regulations and control measures have not been sufficiently effective, as biological invasions continue to intensify despite past efforts (Seebens et al. 2017). More non-native insect species remain undetected and unrecorded, indicating that their overall number is underestimated.

The systematic compilation of non-native species inventories and the thorough characterization of their invasion patterns lay the foundation for evidence-based management and control of invasive non-native species. Here, we provide a preliminary checklist of non-native insects in China and explore the spatial and temporal patterns. Our research provides scientific evidence to support governmental management of non-native species and offers valuable data from China to inform global analyses of invasion patterns in non-native insects. In the future, multidisciplinary approaches will facilitate a more complete understanding of the diversity and status of non-native species, enable the development of more comprehensive invasion maps, and help identify the most influential drivers. These advances will support collaborative efforts among countries to address the environmental challenges posed by biological invasions.