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Alien flora of Turkey: checklist, taxonomic composition and ecological attributes
expand article infoAhmet Uludag‡§, Necmi Aksoy§, Ayşe Yazlık|, Zubeyde Filiz Arslan§, Efecan Yazmış‡, Ilhan Uremis#, Tiziana Antonella Cossu¤«, Quentin Groom», Jan Pergl˄˅, Petr Pyšek¦ˀ, Giuseppe Brundu¤
‡ Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Çanakkale, Turkey
§ Düzce University, Düzce, Turkey
| Düzce University Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, Düzce, Turkey
¶ Department of Invasion Ecology Institute of Botany Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Pruhonice, Czech Republic
# Mustafa Kemal University, Hatay, Turkey
¤ University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
« Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom
» Botanic Garden Meise, Meise, Belgium
˄ Institute of Botany CAS, Pruhonice, Czech Republic
˅ Department of Invasion Ecology, , Czech Republic
¦ Institute of Botany, Průhonice, Czech Republic
ˀ Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic

Corresponding author: Giuseppe Brundu ( gbrundu@tin.it )

Academic editor: Ingolf Kühn
© 2017 Ahmet Uludag, Necmi Aksoy, Ayşe Yazlık, Zubeyde Filiz Arslan, Efecan Yazmış, Ilhan Uremis, Tiziana Antonella Cossu, Quentin Groom, Jan Pergl, Petr Pyšek, Giuseppe Brundu.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Citation: Uludağ A, Aksoy N, Yazlık A, Arslan ZF, Yazmış E, Üremiş I, Cossu TA, Groom Q, Pergl J, Pyšek P, Brundu G (2017) Alien flora of Turkey: checklist, taxonomic composition and ecological attributes. NeoBiota 35: 61-85. https://doi.org/10.3897/neobiota.35.12460
Open Access

Abstract

The paper provides an updated checklist of the alien flora of Turkey with information on its structure. The alien flora of Turkey comprises 340 taxa, among which there are 321 angiosperms, 17 gymnosperms and two ferns. Of the total number of taxa, 228 (68%) are naturalized and 112 (32%) are casual. There are 275 neophytes (172 naturalized and 103 casual) and 61 archaeophytes (52 naturalized and 9 casual); four species could not be classified with respect to the residence time. In addition, 47 frequently planted taxa with a potential to escape are also listed. The richest families are Asteraceae (38 taxa), Poaceae (30), Fabaceae (23) and Solanaceae (22). As for the naturalized alien plants, the highest species richness is found in Asteraceae (31 taxa), Poaceae (22), Amaranthaceae (18) and Solanaceae (15). The majority of alien taxa are perennial (63.8% of the total number of taxa with this life history assigned, including those with multiple life histories), annuals contribute 33.8% and 2.4% are biennial aliens. Among perennials the most common life forms are phanerophytes, of which 20.3% are trees and 12.6% shrubs; woody vines, stem succulents, and aquatic plants are comparatively less represented. Most of the 340 alien taxa introduced to Turkey have their native ranges in Americas (44.7%) and Asia (27.6%). Of other regions, 9.1% originated in Africa, 4.4% in Eurasia, 3.8% in Australia and Oceania and 3.5% in the Mediterranean. The majority of taxa (71.9%) were introduced intentionally, whereas the remaining (28.1%) were introduced accidentally. Among the taxa introduced intentionally, the vast majority are ornamental plants (55.2%), 10.0% taxa were introduced for forestry and 6.7% as crops. Casual alien plants are most commonly found in urban and ruderal habitats (40.1%) where naturalized taxa are also often recorded (27.3%). Plants that occur as agricultural weeds are typically naturalized rather than casual (16.0% vs 7.1%, respectively). However, (semi)natural habitats in Turkey are often invaded by alien taxa, especially by those that are able to naturalize.

Keywords

Alien flora, Turkey, casual and naturalized alien plants

Introduction

Turkey has a long tradition of floristic research and as a result its native flora is satisfactorily investigated. With more than 12,000 plant taxa (Davis 1965–1985, Davis et al. 1988, Güner et al. 2000, 2012) and new species being continuously described, including new endemics (Güner et al. 2012, Özhatay et al. 2013, 2015), the flora of Turkey is the richest among the Mediterranean, European and neighbouring countries (Ekim and Güner 1986). The majority of this total number is represented by native taxa with 31% of endemics (Güner et al. 2012). Turkey's landscape and ecological diversity has contributed not only to a high floristic richness, but has also allowed for successful introductions and cultivation of a great number of crops, fruit species (Ercisli 2004) and forest trees (Atalay et al. 2014).

On the contrary, up to now there was only limited information on Turkish alien flora. Being located at the crossroads of three continents, there has always been an intense movement of humans and goods across Turkey over the history due to human migration, and in modern Turkey both plants and animals were being introduced intentionally and unintentionally in great quantities. Suitable conditions for the cultivation and use and subsequent naturalization of plants introduced into the country are supported historically. Turkey is a country of special significance in the history of agriculture, with some of the earliest sites of plant domestication nearly 10,000 years ago (Aksoy and Oksar 2015), and today 50% of the country area is agricultural land (FAO 2017).

With this background, it is somewhat surprising that so far, the main source of information about alien flora of Turkey was a checklist generated for the DAISIE project (Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe, 2004–2008; see DAISIE 2008, Lambdon et al. 2008), based on the several decades old flora (Davis 1965–1985) that was rather outdated in terms of inventory of alien species. Therefore, the DAISIE project reported only 220 alien taxa for Turkey, of which only 95 were assigned the naturalization status with certainty (Lambdon et al. 2008), which is an underestimation of the real situation. In fact, it should be taken into account that DAISIE included mainly the European part of Turkey, which represents only 3% of the Turkish territory. More recently, new insights into this aspect were provided by the book “Türkiye İstilâcı Bitkiler Kataloğu” (Catalogue of the invasive plants of Turkey) by Önen (2015).

However, such lack of a recent account on the alien flora represents a serious constraint to the management of those plants that are currently invasive or may become so in the future. As generally agreed, alien species lists form the basis for much of the current research on biological invasions, for guiding legislation and code of conducts, as input to decision making and risk assessment and in the formulation of management policies and strategies for nature conservation (Hoffmann and Broadhurst 2016, Woodford et al. 2016, Jacobs et al. 2017). From the scientific point of view, macroecological analyses of alien floras has received much attention recently and improved the understanding of historical flows of alien species among continents (van Kleunen et al. 2015), the dynamics of their accumulation (Seebens et al. 2017) as well as factors driving the variation in regional diversity of alien floras (Pyšek et al. 2009, 2010, 2015, Essl et al. 2011, Seebens et al. 2015).

The aim of this paper is therefore to fill the important gap in the knowledge on alien flora in one of the richest in species countries in Eurasia, by compiling the first comprehensive list of alien plants in Turkey and providing an analysis of its taxonomic composition, origin and ecological structure.

Methods

Study area

Turkey is a large and diverse country located between 25°40' to 44°48'E, and 35°51' to 42°06'N. The total area is 814,578 km2 of which 97% is located in Asia and 3% in in Europe. It is divided into seven geographical regions: Black Sea, Eastern Anatolia, South Eastern Anatolia, Mediterranean, Aegean, Marmara and Inner Anatolia. The average altitude is 1,141 m a.s.l., and it increases from West to East; 18% of Turkey is below 500 m and 25% between 500 and 1,000 m. Plains up to 2,000 m of altitude and high plateaus up to 2,500 m are another source of biodiversity of native plants while providing potential diverse niches for the naturalization of alien species. Turkey’s natural environment is very diverse in terms of climate, ranging from subtropical to cold temperate, as well as topography and geology (Atalay 2002, 2010, 2011), supporting a variety of vegetation types (Akman and Ketenoǧlu 1986). Annual precipitation varies from 300 to 2,000 mm, and mean annual temperature from 4 to 19 °C. Some areas are prone to frosts for almost 10 months, while some have frost for only one day in a year. The growing period varies from almost the whole year to less than 140 growing days. Turkey is surrounded by an 8,333 km coastline with Black Sea at the North, Marmara Sea between two peninsulas, and Aegean Sea at West and Mediterranean at South. The coastal areas represent a dynamic, ecologically fragile environment with threatened habitats in which a diverse range of human activities are carried out (Acar et al. 2014). In addition, the majority of Turkey’s ever-increasing population resides in coastal areas (Erginöz and Doğan 1997). Among cities that represent important points of entry of alien species into the country, İstanbul with a population of almost 15 million is Turkey’s most populated metropolitan area and the economic powerhouse of the country. Its geographical characteristics and topography allow for the existence of diverse microclimatic zones to exist in a relatively small area of 5,461 km2 (Güneralp et al. 2013). The 2,875-km long border of Turkey with its neighbours Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Greece and Bulgaria is associated with a high probability of entry and occurrence of alien plant species in habitats along adjacent roadside corridors that represent an important pathway for alien plants (Wilson et al. 2016).

Data sources used to compile the inventory

The first flora dedicated to Turkey is composed of the five volumes of Boissier’s Flora Orientalis (Boissier 1867–1884) and its supplement (Boissier 1888) where alien species are occasionally reported. However, the basic data source used for the present inventory is the Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands (Davis 1965–1985, Davis et al. 1988, Güner et al. 2000, 2012). This source has been complemented with information extracted from all the available literature, such as, in particular, the papers published after 2000 in the Turkish Journal of Botany and elsewhere. In addition, dedicated studies (Uremis et al. 2014, Arslan et al. 2015) and field surveys (e.g. Brundu et al. 2011) were taken into account as well as herbarium samples stored at the Düzce University Forestry Faculty Herbarium (DUOF) and other herbaria in Turkey (GAZİ, ISTO, AİBO and ISTE). We also screened the GBIF database, which holds 265,818 plant records for Turkey (GBIF 2017); however, alien plant species are significantly underrepresented in this source. We also used information from an ongoing project dedicated to the online flora of Turkey (Tübives – http://www.tubives.com/index.php) (Bakiş et al. 2011), an initiative for a new Flora of Turkey with illustrations ‘Resimli Türkiye Florası Volume 1 (Güner 2014), and ‘Bizim Bitkiler’ (http://www.bizimbitkiler.org.tr/v2/index.php), another online flora of Turkey which includes the last checklist of vascular flora of Turkey by Güner et al. (2012).

Classification of taxa and their characteristics

This inventory focuses on plant species alien to Turkey (synonyms: exotic, introduced, non-indigenous, non-native), i.e. species present in the country because human actions enabled them to overcome fundamental biogeographical barriers (Richardson et al. 2000, Blackburn et al. 2011); they occur in Turkey as a result of intentional or accidental introduction by humans, or as a result of natural spread from other regions where they were introduced by humans. Crosses resulting from hybridization with one or both alien species involved are also considered alien (Pyšek et al. 2004). In addition, we included in this inventory some taxa that are native to a part of the country but introduced elsewhere in Turkey, i.e. alien in Turkey, following an approach proposed by Lambdon et al. (2008) for Europe.

We classified alien plant species according to the stage they reached along the introduction-naturalization-invasion continuum (Richardson and Pyšek 2006, Richardson et al. 2000, 2011, Blackburn et al. 2011). However, due to a lack of data on the rate of spread we did not classify species as invasive and only classified them in two main categories, casual or naturalized. The complete inventory (Suppl. material 1: Table 1) lists also additional species that are presently recorded only in cultivation outside urban areas, but over very large areas, such as tree species in planted forests, and that could start to naturalize in the future due to potentially strong propagule pressure or climate change. These species are, however, not taken into account for data analyses. Taxa were further classified with respect to their residence time, i.e. separated into archaeophytes and neophytes (see e.g. Pyšek et al. 2004, 2012 for delimitation). Affiliation of taxa to families follows the approach of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (Stevens 2001 onwards, APG IV 2016). Plant names have been verified using IPNI (International Plant Name Index, http://www.ipni.org/), The Plant List (2010, version 1, published on the Internet; http://www.theplantlist.org/), WCSP and the African Plants Database (APD, version 3.4.0), updated by the Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève and the South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria, South Africa (http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa). We followed, to our best attempt, the accepted and correct nomenclature according to current taxonomic standards.

Information on life history, region of origin, pathway of introduction (intentional vs accidental) and habitat affiliation was extracted from literature and from the above cited sources for each species.

Life forms were classified as follows: therophytes, hydrophytes, chamaephytes, geophytes, hemicryptophytes and phanerophytes (Raunkiaer 1934, 1937). In addition, growth form and life history were assigned according to the Thesaurus of Plant Characteristics for Ecology and Evolution (Garnier et al. 2017) and other specific literature (Pérez-Harguindeguy et al. 2016). Growth-forms reported for aquatic plants follow Brundu (2015).

The checklist has been archived on the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (Uludağ et al. 2017).

Table 1.Download as CSV 

The most represented families in the alien flora of Turkey, ranked according to the total number of alien taxa, with their representatives classified according to their status. For each family, the number of casual and naturalized taxa and the percentage of naturalized among total aliens are provided. Family names follow APG classification (Stevens 2001 onwards, APG IV 2016).

Family Total no. of alien taxa No. of casual taxa No. of naturalized taxa % of naturalized taxa
Asteraceae 38 7 31 81.6
Poaceae 30 8 22 73.3
Fabaceae 23 11 12 52.2
Solanaceae 22 7 15 68.2
Amaranthaceae 18 0 18 100.0
Euphorbiaceae 11 1 10 90.9
Rosaceae 10 6 4 40.0
Cupressaceae 9 3 6 66.7
Pinaceae 8 4 4 50.0
Oxalidaceae 7 0 7 100.0
Sapindaceae 7 2 5 71.4
Convolvulaceae 6 2 4 66.7
Aizoaceae 5 0 5 100.0
Apocynaceae 5 2 3 60.0
Moraceae 5 3 2 40.0

Statistical analysis

Differences in representation of life forms within casual and naturalized species were tested by contingency tables with control for overdispersion (if needed using quasi-Poisson distribution) (Crawley 2007). To test individual differences among life forms and species groups, adjusted standardized residuals of G-tests were compared with critical values of a normal distribution (Řehák and Řeháková 1986). All analyses were performed in R 3.0.2 (R Core Team 2015).

Results

Species numbers and taxonomic composition

The alien flora of Turkey comprises 340 taxa, among which there are 321 angiosperms, 17 gymnosperms and two ferns. Of the total number of taxa, 228 (67.1%) are naturalized and 112 (32.9%) are casual (Appendix 1; for the complete list of taxa, which includes additional 47 frequently planted taxa noted above, see Suppl. material 1). Related to the total plant diversity of ~12,000 species in the Turkish flora, the contribution of alien taxa is ~2.8% and that of naturalized taxa ~1.9%. Of the taxa for which the classification according to residence time was possible, there are 275 neophytes (172 naturalized and 103 casual) and 61 archaeophytes (52 naturalized and 9 casual).

Turkey’s alien flora includes representatives of 92 families and 251 genera. There are seven families with at least 10 aliens that together comprise 44.7% of the total alien taxa richness of the country; the richest are Asteraceae (38 taxa, corresponding to 11.2% of all aliens), Poaceae (30, 8.8%), Fabaceae (23, 6.8%) and Solanaceae (22, 6.5%). As for the naturalized alien plants, the highest species richness is found in Asteraceae (31 taxa, 13.6% of the total number of naturalized aliens), Poaceae (22, 9.6%), Amaranthaceae (18, 7.9%) and Solanaceae. Over a half of the naturalized alien richness (51.8%) is concentrated in eight families that contain more than four naturalized taxa (Table 1).

The most represented genus is Amaranthus with 13 taxa that are all naturalized, contributing thus 3.3% and 5.7% to all aliens and naturalized aliens, respectively. Solanum is also rather rich in aliens, but of the 11 taxa only five are naturalized. Other genera, that are represented by more than five species and the naturalization success of their representatives is high, are Euphorbia (88.9% of all aliens in the genus are naturalized), Acacia (83.3%) and Oxalis (100%). The 11 genera with at least four alien taxa in Turkey together account for 17.6% of the total alien plant richness and 26.3% of the naturalized richness of the country (Table 2).

Table 2.Download as CSV 

The most represented genera in the alien flora of Turkey, classified according to their status. For each genus, number of casual and naturalized taxa and percentage of naturalized among total aliens in the genus are provided. Genera are ranked according the total number of alien taxa.

Genus Total no. of alien taxa No. of casual taxa No. of naturalized taxa % of naturalized taxa
Amaranthus 13 0 13 100.0
Solanum 11 6 5 45.5
Euphorbia 9 1 8 88.9
Oxalis 7 0 7 100.0
Acacia 6 1 5 83.3
Acer 4 1 3 75.0
Bidens 4 0 4 100.0
Cotoneaster 4 1 3 75.0
Erigeron 4 0 4 100.0
Ipomoea 4 0 4 100.0
Paulownia 4 4 0 0.0
Physalis 4 0 4 100.0

Ecological attributes

The majority of alien taxa are perennial (63.8% of the total number of taxa with this life history assigned, including those with multiple life histories), annuals are also greatly represented (33.8%) and only 2.4% are biennials. Among perennials the most common life forms are phanerophytes, i.e. trees (20.3%) and shrubs (12.6%); woody vines, stem succulent, bambusoid and aquatic plants are comparatively less represented. There were significant differences in the counts per life history between casuals and naturalized species (χ2 = 29.85, DF = 0,6, p<0.001). This significant difference was due to annuals (therophytes) where the observed counts were higher than expected by chance for naturalized species and lower for casuals and due to woody species (phanerophytes) where the situation was reversed (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Frequency of alien species in the flora of Turkey categorized according to their Raunkiaer’s life forms, shown separately for casuals (white bars, n = 112) and naturalized taxa (black bars, n = 228). Bars indicate the percentage contribution of each life form to the total numbers of incidences within casual and naturalized. Significant differences and their directions are indicated above bars (. < 0.1, * < 0.05, ** < 0.01, *** < 0.001).

Most of the 340 alien taxa introduced to Turkey have their native ranges in Americas (44.7%) and Asia (27.6%). Of other regions, 9.1% originated in Africa, 4.4% in Eurasia, 3.8% in Australia and Oceania, and 3.5% in the Mediterranean (see Table 3 for species numbers with respect to the area of origin).

The majority of taxa in the Turkish alien flora (71.9%) were introduced intentionally, whereas the remaining (28.1%) were introduced accidentally. Among the taxa introduced intentionally, the vast majority are ornamental plants (55.2%), 10.0% taxa were introduced for forestry (planted forest, reforestation, sand dune stabilization or soil protection) and 6.7% as crops (i.e. plant taxa cultivated for the production of food, forage, fruit, fibre, dye or drugs).

Casual alien plants are most commonly found in urban and ruderal habitats (40.1% of their total number) where naturalized taxa are also often recorded (27.3%). Plants that occur as agricultural weeds are typically naturalized rather than casual (16.0% vs 7.1%, respectively. However, (semi)natural habitats in Turkey are often invaded by alien taxa, especially by those that are able to naturalize (Table 4).

Table 3.Download as CSV 

Structure of the alien flora of Turkey according to origin and number of casual and naturalized species, with percentages of naturalized taxa among total aliens.

Native range Total no. of alien taxa No. of casual taxa No. of naturalized taxa % of naturalized taxa
America 152 48 104 30.6
Asia 94 33 61 17.9
Africa 31 13 18 5.3
Eurasia 15 2 13 3.8
Australia & Oceania 13 8 5 1.5
Mediterranean 12 1 11 3.2
Europe 9 1 8 2.4
Garden origin & hybrids 8 5 3 0.9
Other & unknown 6 1 5 1.5
Table 4.Download as CSV 

Habitats in which the alien plant taxa are found in Turkey, shown separately for casual and naturalized taxa, with percentages of the total shown for each category. Natural/semi-natural habitats include the categories of the CORINE Land cover class 3 (Forest and semi-natural areas).

Habitat Casual alien % Naturalized alien %
Natural/semi-natural habitats 56 28.4 145 28.3
Urban/ruderal habitats 79 40.1 140 27.3
Coastal habitats 34 17.3 96 18.7
Agricultural land 14 7.1 82 16.0
Riparian habitats/wetlands/lakes 14 7.1 50 9.7

Discussion and conclusions

This is the first comprehensive compilation and analysis of all available records on alien plant taxa in Turkey. It provides the first assessment of their status, introduction purposes and main types of invaded habitats. It also pinpoints knowledge gaps in the geographic and biogeographic distribution and the quantification of environmental and economic impacts.

The total number of the alien taxa reported for Turkey here (340) is relatively low compared to other Mediterranean and Southern European countries, namely France (1,258 taxa), Italy (1,023), Spain (933) and Portugal (547) (Lambdon et al. 2008, Celesti-Grapow et al. 2009) and numerically comparable with Greece (343; Arianoutsou et al. 2010, Dimopoulos et al. 2016). The same is true for the naturalized species richness in Turkey (228 taxa), for which higher numbers are reported for e.g. France (732), Spain (495) or Italy (440), but comparable numbers for Portugal (261) and lower for Greece (134) (Lambdon et al. 2008). This fact, together with the remarkably high richness of native flora of Turkey, makes the contribution of alien species to the total plant diversity of the country relatively low, with the values between 1.9 and 2.8% being by an order of magnitude lower than in some other European countries (e.g. Pyšek et al. 2012) or this continent as a whole. Europe, with a comparable native plant diversity as Turkey, ~10,000 native species (Winter et al. 2009), harbours 1,780 naturalized aliens from overseas and if one considers also intracontinental aliens the number reaches 3,749 taxa (Lambdon et al. 2008) or 4,140 according to the most recent account in GloNAF database (van Kleunen et al. 2015).

This is the first comprehensive catalogue for Turkey and it is based mainly on literature and herbarium data, with only a limited number of dedicated field surveys. Other Mediterranean countries such as France, Italy or Spain have a longer tradition of floristic research on alien plants, whose appearance and establishment have long been documented by botanists there (e.g., by Saccardo 1909). It is therefore possible that casual species are underestimated in the dataset, as casuals in general, and escaped ornamentals in particular (Pergl et al. 2016b), are rarely recorded in botanical works nor are they often collected in herbaria. Another possible explanation for the lower number of alien plants than in some other European countries is that although cultivation of ornamental plants dates back to ancient times, there has been rapid development and change in the ornamental plants sector in Turkey only after the 1980s and this development has gained speed only in the 2000s (Çelik and Arisoy 2013).

The rate of naturalization (proportion of naturalized to all aliens) is 67% in Turkey, i.e. the same as in Cyprus but higher than in Greece (41%), Spain (53%), Portugal (47%) and Italy (51%) (Arianoutsou et al. 2010). On the contrary, with the exception of Bulgaria, there is only very limited knowledge on the alien flora of Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, Syria which impedes comparisons between these countries and, at the same time, forecasting of future trends for the entire Mediterranean region.

National inventories of alien plants are one of the key components for evaluating the status of biodiversity in a given country, as well as threats to endangered species, and provide source data for creating relevant indicators (Lambdon et al. 2008, Celesti-Grapow et al. 2010, Pyšek et al. 2012, van Kleunen et al. 2015, Latombe et al. 2017). Such data are needed for early warning systems, prioritization of management and implementation of effective policy measures (Brunel et al. 2010). The publication of checklists also helps neighbouring countries and trading partners to assess the threat from potential invasions of new species to arrive and checklists can contribute to so-called horizon scanning exercises looking for potential new threats (Roy et al. 2014, Latombe et al. 2017).

Identifying those species that represent potential or future threats, while still at an early stage of invasion, represents a major challenge for prediction (Lambdon et al. 2008, Brunel et al. 2010). Detailed knowledge of the pool of alien naturalized species from which emerging invaders recruit can provide national authorities in Turkey with an instrument for prioritization of management measures and allocation of resources to those species where future spread, and environmental and socioeconomic impacts are likely to occur (Brunel et al. 2010, Pergl et al. 2016a, Rumlerová et al. 2016). The results of the present research will increase the awareness of alien plant taxa in Turkey and neighbouring countries and trigger further dedicated specialized studies, such as assessment of the impact by using standard scoring systems (e.g. Blackburn et al. 2014, Nentwig et al. 2016). New alien species are bound to arrive and spread in Turkey and we hope that publication of this list will encourage further recording so that the impacts of these species can be minimized.

Acknowledgments

PP and JP were supported by long-term research development project RVO 67985939 and Premium Academiae award to PP from The Czech Academy of Sciences. The authors also acknowledge support from the COST Action TD1209 “Alien Challenge” and FA1203 “SMARTER”. AU and NA have been supported partly by the ESENIAS-TOOLS project which is funded by the Financial Mechanism of the European Economic Area (2009–2014). We gratefully acknowledge G. Domina and two anonymous reviewers whose comments and suggestions greatly helped to improve the present research.

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Appendix 1

Table A1.Download as CSV 

List of naturalized and casual alien taxa in the flora of Turkey. Taxa are ordered alphabetically. Each taxon is listed together with its family, residence time (Res: Arc = archaeophyte, Neo = neophyte); invasion status (Stat: Cas = casual, Nat = naturalized), simplified growth form and native range.

Taxa Family Res Stat Simplified growth form Native range
Abutilon theophrastii Medik. Malvaceae Arc Nat Herb Asia
Acacia dealbata Link Fabaceae Neo Cas Tree Australia
Acacia karroo Hayne Fabaceae Neo Nat Tree Africa
Acacia longifolia (Andrews) Willd. Fabaceae Neo Nat Tree Australia
Acacia mearnsii De Wild. Fabaceae Neo Nat Tree Australia
Acacia retinodes Schltdl. Fabaceae Neo Nat Tree Australia
Acacia saligna (Labill.) H.L.Wendl. Fabaceae Neo Nat Tree Australia
Acalypha australis L. Euphorbiaceae Neo Nat Herb Asia
Acer buergerianum Miq. Sapindaceae Neo Nat Tree Asia
Acer negundo L. Sapindaceae Neo Nat Tree America
Acer palmatum Thunb. Sapindaceae Arc Nat Tree Asia
Acer saccharum Marsh. Sapindaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Acorus calamus L. Acoraceae Arc Nat Aquatic Asia
Actinidia deliciosa (A.Chev.) C.F.Liang & A.R.Ferguson Actinidiaceae Neo Cas Vine Asia
Aesculus carnea J.Zeyh. Sapindaceae Neo Nat Tree Garden/Hybrid
Aesculus hippocastanum L. Sapindaceae Neo Nat Tree Europe
Agave americana L. var. americana Asparagaceae Neo Nat Succulent America
Agave americana var. striata Trel. Asparagaceae Neo Nat Succulent America
Agrostemma githago L. Caryophyllaceae Arc Nat Herb Mediterranean
Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle Simaroubaceae Neo Nat Tree Asia
Albizia julibrissin Durazz Fabaceae Neo Nat Tree Asia
Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC. Amaranthaceae Neo Nat Herb Asia
Amaranthus albus L. Amaranthaceae Arc Nat Herb America
Amaranthus blitoides S.Watson Amaranthaceae Arc Nat Herb America
Amaranthus blitum L. subsp. blitum Amaranthaceae Arc Nat Herb Eurasia
Amaranthus blitum subsp. emarginatus (Salzm. ex Uline & Bray) Carretero, Muñoz Garm. & Pedrol Amaranthaceae Arc Nat Herb Eurasia
Amaranthus blitum subsp. oleraceus (L.) Costea Amaranthaceae Arc Nat Herb Eurasia
Amaranthus cruentus L. Amaranthaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Amaranthus deflexus L. Amaranthaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Amaranthus graecizans L. Amaranthaceae Neo Nat Herb Mediterranean
Amaranthus hybridus L. Amaranthaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. Amaranthaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Amaranthus retroflexus L. Amaranthaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Amaranthus viridis L. Amaranthaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Ambrosia tenuifolia Spreng. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Ammannia coccinea Rottb. Lythraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Amorpha fruticosa L. Fabaceae Neo Cas Shrub America
Araujia sericifera Brot. Apocynaceae Neo Nat Vine America
Armeria maritima (Mill.) Willd. Plumbaginaceae Arc Cas Herb Europe
Artemisia annua L. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb Asia
Artemisia verlotiorum Lamotte Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb Asia
Arundo donax L. Poaceae Arc Nat Bambusoid Asia
Aster subulatus (Michx.) Hort. ex Michx. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Avena byzantina K.Koch Poaceae Arc Cas Herb Garden/Hybrid
Azolla filiculoides Lam. Azollaceae Arc Nat Aquatic America
Bauhinia variegata L. Fabaceae Neo Nat Tree Asia
Berberis veitchii C.K.Schneid. Berberidaceae Arc Nat Shrub Asia
Berberis thunbergii DC. Berberidaceae Arc Nat Shrub Asia
Bidens bipinnata L. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb Asia
Bidens campylotheca Sch.Bip. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Bidens cernua L. s.l. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Bidens frondosa L. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Bougainvillea buttiana Holttum & Standl. Nyctaginaceae Neo Nat Vine America
Bougainvillea glabra Choisy Nyctaginaceae Neo Cas Vine America
Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. Nyctaginaceae Neo Nat Vine America
Brachychiton populneus (Schott & Endl.) R.Br. Sterculiaceae Neo Nat Tree Australia
Bromus tectorum L. Poaceae N/A Nat Herb Eurasia
Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. Moraceae Neo Nat Tree Asia
Bryophyllum delagoense (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Druce Crassulaceae Neo Cas Succulent Africa
Buddleja davidii Franch. Scrophulariaceae Neo Nat Shrub Asia
Caesalpinia gilliesii (Hook.) D.Dietr. Fabaceae Neo Nat Shrub America
Calendula officinalis L. Asteraceae Arc Nat Herb Eurasia
Callistemon citrinus (Curtis) Skeels Myrtaceae Neo Cas Tree Australia
Callistemon viminalis (Sol. ex Gaertn.) G.Don Myrtaceae Neo Cas Tree Australia
Camellia japonica L. Theaceae Arc Nat Shrub Asia
Canna indica L. Cannaceae Neo Nat Bambusoid America
Caragana arborescens Lam. Fabaceae Neo Nat Shrub/Tree Asia
Carex vulpinoidea Michx. Cyperaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Carpobrotus acinaciformis (L.) L.Bolus Aizoaceae Neo Nat Succulent Africa
Carpobrotus edulis (L.) N.E.Br. Aizoaceae Neo Nat Succulent Africa
Carthamus tinctorius L. Asteraceae Arc Cas Herb Asia
Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold Apocynaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Catalpa bignonioides Walter Bignoniaceae Neo Nat Tree America
Cedrus atlantica (Endl.) Carrière Pinaceae Neo Cas Tree Africa
Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don Pinaceae Neo Nat Tree Asia
Ceiba speciosa (A.St.-Hil.) Ravenna Malvaceae Neo Nat Tree America
Cenchrus incertus M.A.Curtis Poaceae Arc Nat Herb America
Centaurea pullata L. Asteraceae Arc Nat Herb Mediterranean
Chaenomeles japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. ex Spach Rosaceae Neo Cas Shrub Asia
Chenopodium album L. Amaranthaceae Arc Nat Herb Eurasia
Chenopodium giganteum D.Don Chenopodiaceae Arc Nat Herb Asia
Cichorium endivia L. Asteraceae Arc Cas Herb Asia
Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. Cucurbitaceae Arc Cas Vine Eurasia
Citrus trifoliata L. Rutaceae Neo Cas Tree Asia
Coix lacryma-jobi L. Poaceae Neo Nat Herb Asia
Commelina communis L. Commelinaceae Neo Nat Herb Asia
Convolvulus tricolor L. Convolvulaceae Arc Cas Vine Mediterranean
Cortaderia selloana (Schult. & Schult.f.) Asch. & Graebn. Poaceae Neo Cas Bambusoid America
Cosmos bipinnatus Cav. Asteraceae Neo Cas Herb America
Cotoneaster adpressus Bois Rosaceae Neo Cas Shrub Asia
Cotoneaster franchetii Bois Rosaceae Neo Nat Shrub Asia
Cotoneaster horizontalis Decne. Rosaceae Neo Nat Shrub Asia
Cotoneaster salicifolius Franch. Rosaceae Arc Nat Shrub Asia
Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S.Moore Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb Africa
Cryptomeria japonica (Thunb. ex L.f.) D.Don Cupressaceae Neo Cas Tree Asia
Cupressus arizonica Greene Cupressaceae Neo Nat Tree America
Cupressus macrocarpa Hartw. Cupressaceae Neo Nat Tree America
Cuscuta campestris Yunck. Cuscutaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Cymbalaria muralis P.Gaertn., B.Mey. & Scherb. Plantaginaceae Arc Nat Herb Mediterranean
Cynoglossum wallichii var. glochidiatum (Wall. ex Benth.) Kazmi Boraginaceae Arc Nat Herb Asia
Cyperus congestus Vahl Cyperaceae Neo Nat Herb Africa
Cyperus esculentus L. Cyperaceae Arc Nat Herb Unknown
Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae Arc Nat Herb Eurasia
Dalbergia sissoo DC. Fabaceae Neo Cas Tree Asia
Datura innoxia Mill. Solanaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Datura metel L. Solanaceae Neo Cas Herb Asia
Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Deutzia gracilis Siebold & Zucc. Hydrangeaceae Arc Nat Shrub Asia
Deutzia scabra Thunb. Hydrangeaceae Neo Nat Shrub Asia
Dichondra repens J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. Convolvulaceae Neo Cas Herb Asia
Dichrocephala integrifolia (L.f.) Kuntze Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb Africa & Asia
Dieffenbachia seguine (Jacq.) Schott Araceae Neo Nat Herb America
Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. Poaceae Neo Nat Herb Europe & Africa
Diplachne fusca (L.) P.Beauv. Poaceae Neo Nat Herb Unknown
Duchesnea indica (Jacks.) Focke Rosaceae Neo Cas Herb Asia
Duranta erecta L. Verbenaceae Neo Nat Shrub/Tree America
Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants Amaranthaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Dysphania botrys (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants Amaranthaceae Arc Nat Herb Eurasia
Dysphania multifida (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants Amaranthaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Echinochloa colonum (L.) Link Poaceae Neo Nat Herb Unknown
Echinochloa oryzoides (Ard.) Fritsch Poaceae Arc Nat Herb Asia
Echinopsis chamaecereus H.Friedrich & Glaetzle Cactaceae Neo Nat Succulent America
Egeria densa Planch. Hydrocharitaceae Neo Nat Aquatic America
Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae Neo Nat Aquatic America
Elatine ambigua Wight Elatinaceae Neo Nat Aquatic Asia
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae Neo Nat Herb Africa
Elodea canadensis Michx. Hydrocharitaceae Neo Nat Aquatic America
Elsholtzia ciliata (Thunb.) Hyl. Lamiaceae Neo Nat Herb Asia
Eragrostis curvula (Schrad.) Nees Poaceae Arc Nat Herb Africa
Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Erigeron bonariensis L. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Erigeron canadensis L. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Erigeron sumatrensis Retz. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Erythrina crista-galli L. Fabaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Erythrina flabelliformis Kearney Fabaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Myrtaceae Neo Cas Tree Australia
Eucalyptus grandis W.Hill Myrtaceae Neo Cas Tree Australia
Euonymus fortunei (Turcz.) Hand.-Mazz. Celastraceae Arc Nat Shrub Asia
Euonymus japonicus Thunb. Celastraceae Arc Nat Shrub/Tree Asia
Eupatorium cannabinum L. Asteraceae Arc Nat Herb Europe
Euphorbia chamaesyce L. Euphorbiaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Euphorbia heterophylla L. Euphorbiaceae Neo Cas Herb America
Euphorbia humifusa Willd. Euphorbiaceae Arc Nat Herb Asia
Euphorbia lagascae Spreng. Euphorbiaceae Arc Nat Herb Mediterranean
Euphorbia lathyris L. Euphorbiaceae Arc Nat Herb Mediterranean
Euphorbia nutans Lag. Euphorbiaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Euphorbia prostrata Aiton Euphorbiaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Euphorbia serpens Kunth Euphorbiaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Euphorbia supina Rafin. Euphorbiaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Fallopia aubertii (L.Henry) Holub Polygonaceae Neo Nat Vine Asia
Fatsia japonica (Thunb.) Decne. & Planch. Araliaceae Neo Nat Shrub/Tree Asia
Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem. Moraceae Neo Cas Tree Asia
Ficus macrophylla Desf. ex Pers. Moraceae Neo Cas Tree Australia
Ficus microcarpa L.f. Moraceae Neo Cas Tree Asia
Forsythia × intermedia Zabel Oleaceae Neo Cas Shrub Garden/Hybrid
Fragaria × ananassa (Duchesne ex Weston) Duchesne ex Rozier Rosaceae Neo Cas Herb America
Gaillardia pulchella Foug. Asteraceae Neo Cas Herb America
Galinsoga ciliata (Rafin) S.F. Blake Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Galinsoga parviflora Cav. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Galinsoga quadriradiata Ruiz & Pav. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Gasteria obliqua (Aiton) Duval Xanthorrhoeaceae Neo Cas Succulent Africa
Gazania rigens (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae Neo Cas Herb Africa
Geranium pusillum L. Geraniaceae Neo Nat Herb Eurasia
Gleditsia triacanthos L. Fabaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) W.T.Aiton Apocynaceae Neo Nat Herb Africa
Gypsophila elegans M.Bieb. Caryophyllaceae Arc Nat Herb Eurasia
Gypsophila pilosa Huds. Caryophyllaceae Arc Nat Herb Asia
Heliotropium curassavicum L. Boraginaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Hemerocallis fulva (L.) L. Hemerocallidaceae Neo Nat Herb Asia
Hibiscus trionum L. Malvaceae Arc Nat Herb Africa
Homalocladium platycladum (F.Muell.) L.H.Bailey Polygonaceae Neo Cas Shrub Oceania
Hoya carnosa (L.f.) R.Br. Apocynaceae Neo Cas Vine Asia
Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb.) Ser. Hydrangeaceae Neo Nat Herb Asia
Hydrocotyle ramiflora Maxim. Umbelliferae Neo Nat Aquatic Asia
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. Poaceae Neo Nat Herb Asia
Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth Convolvulaceae Neo Nat Vine America
Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth Convolvulaceae Neo Nat Vine America
Ipomoea tricolor Cav. Convolvulaceae Neo Nat Vine America
Ipomoea triloba L. Convolvulaceae Neo Nat Vine America
Jacaranda mimosifolia D.Don Bignoniaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Juncus tenuis Willd. Juncaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Juniperus chinensis L. Cupressaceae Neo Nat Shrub/Tree Asia
Juniperus horizontalis Moench Cupressaceae Neo Nat Shrub America
Justicia brandegeeana Wassh. & L.B.Sm. Acanthaceae Neo Cas Shrub America
Kalanchoe blossfeldiana Poelln. Crassulaceae Neo Cas Succulent Africa (Madagascar)
Kerria japonica (L.) DC. Rosaceae Neo Cas Shrub Asia
Kniphofia uvaria (L.) Oken Liliaceae Neo Cas Succulent Africa
Koelreuteria paniculata Laxm. Sapindaceae Neo Cas Tree Asia
Lagerstroemia indica L. Lythraceae Neo Cas Tree Asia
Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae Neo Cas Shrub America
Lepidium virginicum L. Brassicaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit Fabaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Ligustrum ovalifolium Hassk. Oleaceae Neo Cas Shrub/Tree Asia
Liquidambar styraciflua L. Altingiaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Livistona mariae F.Muell. Arecaceae Neo Cas Palm Australia
Lonicera japonica Thunb. Caprifoliaceae Neo Cas Vine Asia
Lonicera ligustrina var. yunnanensis Franch. Caprifoliaceae Neo Cas Vine Asia
Lonicera periclymenum L. Caprifoliaceae Neo Nat Vine Europe & NW Africa
Ludwigia peploides (Kunth) P.H.Raven s.l. Onagraceae Neo Cas Aquatic America
Lycianthes rantonnei (Carrière) Bitter Solanaceae Neo Nat Shrub America
Lysimachia japonica Thunb. Primulaceae Neo Nat Herb Asia
Maclura pomifera (Raf.) C.K.Schneid. Moraceae Neo Nat Tree America
Magnolia grandiflora L. Magnoliaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Malus floribunda Siebold ex Van Houtte Rosaceae Arc Nat Shrub/Tree Asia
Matricaria discoidea DC. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Matricaria matricarioides (Less.) Porter Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Melia azedarach L. Meliaceae Neo Nat Tree Asia
Mesembryanthemum cordifolium L.f. Aizoaceae Neo Nat Succulent Africa
Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L. Aizoaceae Neo Nat Succulent Africa
Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum L. Aizoaceae Arc Nat Succulent Mediterranean & S Africa
Microstegium vimineum (Trin.) A.Camus Poaceae Neo Nat Herb Asia
Mirabilis jalapa L. Nyctaginaceae Neo Cas Herb America
Miscanthus sinensis Andersson Poaceae Neo Cas Bambusoid Asia
Myriophyllum spicatum L. Haloragaceae Neo Cas Aquatic Eurasia
Myriophyllum verticillatum L. Haloragaceae Neo Cas Aquatic Circumboreal
Nandina domestica Thunb. Berberidaceae Neo Cas Bambusoid Asia
Nephrolepis exaltata (L.) Schott Nephrolepidaceae Neo Cas Fern America
Nicotiana glauca Graham Solanaceae Neo Nat Shrub/Tree America
Oenothera biennis L. Onagraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Oenothera glazioviana Micheli Onagraceae Neo Nat Herb Garden/Hybrid
Oenothera parodiana Munz Onagraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Oldenlandia capensis L.f. var. capensis Rubiaceae Neo Nat Herb Africa
Oldenlandia capensis var. pleiosepala Bremek. Rubiaceae Neo Cas Herb Africa
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. Cactaceae Neo Nat Succulent America
Opuntia microdasys (Lehm.) Pfeiff. Cactaceae Neo Nat Succulent America
Oryza sativa L. Poaceae Arc Cas Herb Asia
Oxalis articulata Savigny Oxalidaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Oxalis corniculata L. s.l. Oxalidaceae Arc Nat Herb America
Oxalis debilis var. corymbosa (DC.) Lourteig Oxalidaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Oxalis floribunda Lehm. Oxalidaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Oxalis pes-caprae L. Oxalidaceae Neo Nat Herb Africa
Oxalis pes-caprae f. pleniflora (Lowe) Sunding Oxalidaceae Neo Nat Herb Africa
Oxalis stricta L. Oxalidaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Panicum capillare L. Poaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Panicum miliaceum L. Poaceae Arc Nat Herb Asia
Parkinsonia aculeata L. Fabaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch. Vitaceae Neo Cas Vine America
Paspalum dilatatum Poir. Poaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Paspalum distichum L. Poaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Paspalum thunbergii Kunth ex Steud Poaceae Arc Cas Herb Asia
Passiflora caerulea L. Passifloraceae Neo Cas Vine America
Paulownia elongata S. Y. Hu. Paulowniaceae Neo Cas Tree Asia
Paulownia fortunei (Seem.) Hemsl. Paulowniaceae Neo Cas Tree Asia
Paulownia fortunei x Paulownia tomentosa Paulowniaceae Neo Cas Tree Garden/Hybrid
Paulownia tomentosa Steud. Paulowniaceae Neo Cas Tree Asia
Pelargonium zonale (L.) L’Hér. ex Aiton Geraniaceae Neo Nat Shrub Africa
Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton Lamiaceae Neo Cas Herb Asia
Phacelia tanacetifolia Benth. Hydrophyllaceae Neo Cas Herb America
Phaseolus vulgaris L. Fabaceae Neo Cas Vine America
Phyla canescens (Kunth) Greene Verbenaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene Verbenaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Phyllostachys bambusoides Siebold & Zucc. Poaceae Neo Nat Bambusoid Asia
Physalis alkekengi L. s.l. Solanaceae Neo Nat Herb Eurasia
Physalis angulata L. Solanaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Physalis philadelphica var. immaculata Waterf. Solanaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Physalis pubescens L. Solanaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Phytolacca americana L. Phytolaccaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Picea glauca (Moench) Voss Pinaceae Neo Nat Tree America
Pinus pinaster Aiton Pinaceae Arc Nat Tree Mediterranean
Pinus ponderosa Douglas ex C.Lawson Pinaceae Neo Nat Tree America
Pinus radiata D.Don Pinaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Pittosporum tobira (Thunb.) W.T.Aiton Pittosporaceae Neo Cas Shrub Asia
Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco Cupressaceae Neo Nat Tree Asia
Plumbago auriculata Lam. Plumbaginaceae Neo Cas Shrub Africa
Polygala myrtifolia L. Polygalaceae Neo Cas Shrub Africa
Polygonum perfoliatum L. Polygonaceae Neo Nat Vine Asia
Polygonum thunbergii Siebold & Zucc. Polygonaceae Arc Nat Herb Asia
Populus × canadensis Moench Salicaceae Neo Nat Tree Garden/Hybrid
Populus deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh. Salicaceae Neo Nat Tree America
Portulaca grandiflora Hook. Portulacaceae Neo Cas Herb America
Portulaca oleracea L. s.l. Portulacaceae Arc Nat Herb Mediterranean
Pseudosasa japonica (Steud.) Makino Poaceae Neo Cas Bambusoid Asia
Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco var. menziesii Pinaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco var. glauca (Beissn.) Franco Pinaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Quercus rubra L. Fagaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Rhapis excelsa (Thunb.) Henry Arecaceae Neo Nat Palm Asia
Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Arc Nat Shrub Africa
Robinia hispida L. Fabaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Robinia pseudoacacia L. Fabaceae Neo Nat Tree America
Rudbeckia hirta L. Asteraceae Neo Cas Herb America
Russelia equisetiformis Schltdl. & Cham. Plantaginaceae Neo Cas Shrub America
Salix babylonica L. Salicaceae Neo Nat Tree Asia
Santolina chamaecyparissus L. Asteraceae Arc Nat Herb Mediterranean
Saponaria officinalis L. Caryophyllaceae Arc Nat Herb Eurasia
Schefflera arboricola (Hayata) Merr. Araliaceae Neo Cas Shrub Asia
Schinus molle L. Anacardiaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi Anacardiaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Scopolia carniolica Jacq. Solanaceae Arc Nat Herb Europe
Sequoia sempervirens (D.Don) Endl. Cupressaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Sequoiadendron giganteum (Lindl.) J.Buchholz Cupressaceae Neo Cas Tree America
Setaria faberi R.A.W.Herrm. Poaceae Neo Nat Herb Asia
Setaria italica (L.) P.Beauv. Poaceae N/A Nat Herb Unknown
Setaria viridis (L.) P.Beauv. Poaceae Neo Nat Herb Eurasia
Sicyos angulatus L. Cucurbitaceae Neo Nat Vine America
Sida spinosa L. Malvaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Sigesbeckia pubescens (Makino) Makino Asteraceae Neo Cas Herb Asia
Solanum americanum Mill. Solanaceae N/A Nat Herb Unknown
Solanum angustifolium Mill. Solanaceae Neo Cas Herb America
Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav. Solanaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Solanum jasminoides J.Paxton Solanaceae Neo Cas Vine America
Solanum luteum Mill. s.l. Solanaceae N/A Nat Herb Mediterranean & E Asia
Solanum lycopersicum L. Solanaceae Neo Cas Herb America
Solanum pseudocapsicum L. Solanaceae Neo Cas Herb America
Solanum pseudocapsicum var. diflorum (Vell.) Bitter Solanaceae Neo Cas Herb America
Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam. Solanaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Solanum sodomaeum L. Solanaceae Neo Nat Shrub Africa
Solanum tuberosum L. Solanaceae Neo Cas Herb America
Solidago canadensis L. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Sorghum × drummondii (Nees ex Steud.) Millsp. & Chase Poaceae Neo Cas Bambusoid Garden/Hybrid
Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench Poaceae Arc Cas Bambusoid Africa
Spiraea × vanhouttei (Briot) Zabel Rosaceae Neo Cas Shrub Garden/Hybrid
Sporobolus fertilis (Steud.) Clayton Poaceae Neo Nat Herb Asia
Sporobolus indicus (L.) R.Br. Poaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Strelitzia reginae Banks Strelitziaceae Neo Cas Herb Africa
Styphnolobium japonicum (L.) Schott Fabaceae Neo Cas Tree Asia
Symphyotrichum laeve (L.) Á.Löve & D.Löve Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Symphyotrichum squamatum (Spreng.) G.L.Nesom Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Syringa vulgaris L. Oleaceae Neo Nat Shrub Europe
Tagetes erecta L. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Tagetes minuta L. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Tecoma capensis (Thunb.) Lindl. Bignoniaceae Neo Cas Vine Africa
Thuja plicata Donn ex D.Don Cupressaceae Neo Nat Tree America
Tradescantia fluminensis Vell. Commelinaceae Neo Nat Herb America
Tradescantia pallida (Rose) D.R.Hunt Commelinaceae Neo Cas Herb America
Tropaeolum majus L. Tropaeolaceae Neo Nat Vine America
Ulex europaeus L. Fabaceae Neo Nat Shrub Europe
Veronica persica Poir. Plantaginaceae Neo Nat Herb Asia
Vinca minor L. Apocynaceae Arc Nat Herb Europe
Vitis riparia Michx s.l. Vitaceae Neo Cas Vine America
Washingtonia robusta H.Wendl. Arecaceae Neo Cas Palm America
Weigela florida (Bunge) A.DC. Caprifoliaceae Neo Nat Shrub Asia
Wisteria sinensis (Sims) Sweet Fabaceae Neo Nat Vine Asia
Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Solanaceae Arc Nat Shrub Asia
Xanthium spinosum L. Asteraceae Neo Nat Herb America
Xanthium strumarium L. s.l. Asteraceae Arc Nat Herb America
Yucca gloriosa L. Asparagaceae Neo Cas Succulent America
Zantedeschia aethiopica (L.) Spreng. Araceae Neo Cas Herb Africa
Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. Rhamnaceae Arc Nat Shrub/Tree Asia

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