Research Article |
Corresponding author: Christine S. Sheppard ( christine.sheppard@uni-hohenheim.de ) Academic editor: José Hierro
© 2021 Christine S. Sheppard, Marco R. Brendel.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Citation:
Sheppard CS, Brendel MR (2021) Competitive ability of native and alien plants: effects of residence time and invasion status. NeoBiota 65: 47-69. https://doi.org/10.3897/neobiota.65.63179
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Competition is commonly thought to underlie the impact of plant invasions. However, competitive effects of aliens and competitive response of natives may also change over time. Indeed, as with time, the novelty of an invader decreases, the accumulated eco-evolutionary experience of resident species may eventually limit invasion success. We aimed to gain insights on whether directional changes in biotic interactions over time or more general differences between natives and aliens, for instance, resulting from an introduction bias, are relevant in determining competitive ability. We conducted a pairwise competition experiment in a target-neighbour design, using 47 Asteraceae species with residence times between 8 years-12,000 years in Germany. We first tested whether there are differences in performance in intraspecific competition amongst invasion status groups, that is casual and established neophytes, archaeophytes or native species. We then evaluated whether competitive response and effects depend on residence time or invasion status. Lastly, we assessed whether competitive effects influence range sizes. We found only limited evidence that native target species tolerate neighbours with longer potential co-existence times better, whereas differences in competitive ability were mostly better explained by invasion status than residence time. Although casual neophytes produced most biomass in intraspecific competition, they had the weakest per-capita competitive effects on natives. Notably, we did not find differences between established neophytes and natives, both of which ranked highest in interspecific competitive ability. This lack of differences might be explained by a biased selection of highly invasive or rare native species in previous studies or because invasion success may result from mechanisms other than interspecific competitive superiority. Accordingly, interspecific per-capita competitive effects did not influence range sizes. Further studies across a broader range of environmental conditions, involving other biotic interactions that indirectly influence plant-plant interactions, may clarify when eco-evolutionary adaptations to new invaders are a relevant mechanism.
Asteraceae, biotic interaction, co-existence time, competition experiment, competitive response and effect, eco-evolutionary experience, introduction bias, plant invasion
Biological invasions are a major driver of global change, posing a threat to native species, communities and ecosystems (
Given its importance for invasion success and impacts, competition amongst aliens and natives has long been studied (
As competition for limiting resources may act as a selection pressure, plants with a history of co-existence may have developed niche differentiation or reached a balance in competitive abilities through adaptive evolution (
Differences in competitive ability between invader and resident species are not necessarily only the result of such gradual directional changes in competitive interactions. Instead or additionally, there may be a priori differences in competitive ability that result from an introduction bias. This means that alien species are not a random sample of all plants of the world. Indeed, alien species tend to have a stronger human association and may, hence, be more adapted to human-modified environmental conditions (
In this study, we aimed to gain insights into whether continuous residence time or categorical invasion status may explain differences in competitive ability between natives and aliens better and whether any such differences have consequences for large-scale invasion success (i.e. if species with higher competitive ability reach larger range sizes). Thereby, we specifically aimed to test if we find directional changes in competitive ability over time, consistent with an increase in biotic resistance of native species to newly-introduced species. Alternatively, we considered whether we rather find evidence for more general differences amongst invasion status groups, resulting either from an introduction bias or other non-directional eco-evolutionary processes. To this end, we conducted a pairwise competition experiment with 47 Asteraceae species along an “alien-native species continuum”, including species along a continuous gradient of residence times (
Overall, we thus address the following research questions: 1) Does performance in intraspecific competition depend on invasion status? Note that in this first question we did not test for effects of residence time since no interspecific interactions were involved (i.e. no variation in potential co-existence times). 2) Does interspecific competitive ability (competitive response of five native targets and competitive effects of all 47 alien and native neighbours) depend on residence time or invasion status? 3) Do interspecific competitive effects (and residence time) influence range size?
Our study focused on 47 species of annual Asteraceae along an alien-native species continuum (
In March 2017, we set up a pairwise competition experiment at a field station of the University of Hohenheim, Germany (Versuchsstation Heidfeldhof: 48°43'02.1"N, 9°11'03.1"E, 400 m a.s.l.; annual precipitation: 698 mm, mean annual temperature: 8.8 °C). The experiment was set up in a target-neighbour design, whereby we focused on five native Asteraceae as target species (Crepis pulchra, Hypochaeris glabra, Lapsana communis, Pulicaria vulgaris and Senecio viscosus) and all 47 species as neighbours. The five targets were grown in pots as single individuals, in intraspecific competition and in interspecific competition with all other 46 Asteraceae species, which vary in their MRT and invasion status in Germany. Thereby, we had a single target individual in the middle of the pot, surrounded by multiple individuals of one neighbour species.
The pots were placed in ten rows and each target-neighbour combination was usually replicated four times (for the total number of replicates per species combination, see Suppl. material
Targets and neighbours were established from seeds. As we included such a large number of neighbour species that vary in their growth rates, we aimed for constant strength (in terms of biomass production, rather than number of individuals) of neighbour competition across species. We determined the required number of seeds to be sown for each neighbour species, based on data on the average biomass production and establishment rates from a previous experiment in 2016 (
After setting up the target-neighbour combinations, we noticed that the pots were filled with two different soil types (which was not part of the planned design of the experiment): the field soil originated from two separate deliveries from the same company (Glaser Recycling GmbH, Mönsheim, Germany) and soil analyses indicated that these two deliveries were comparable in soil texture, but differed in nutrient contents. Specifically, we had a nutrient-poor (NO3- 5.48 mg/kg, NH4+ 0.27 mg/kg, P 3.06 mg/ kg, with a pH value of 8 and total carbon content 1.58%) and a nutrient-rich (NO3- 10.19 mg/kg, NH4+ 0.89 mg/kg, P 4.28 mg/kg, with a pH value of 7.7 and total carbon content 2.85%) soil. The soils had a sandy loamy texture (nutrient-poor type: 76% sand, 10% clay and 14% silt; nutrient-rich type: 66% sand, 16% clay and 18% silt). As having two different soil types was not a planned part of the experiment and pots had been allocated in a completely randomised manner, the target-neighbour combinations were spread unevenly between the two soil types: of the surviving pots, most pots were of the nutrient-poor type (647 pots, 16 of which are single targets), with only 21% (177 pots, four of which are single targets) in the nutrient-rich type. One species, Carthamus tinctorius, only occurred in the nutrient-rich soil. Having twice the amount of plant available nitrogen highly influenced biomass production during the season and, hence, we usually analysed data originating from the two soil types separately.
Four weeks after sowing, we assessed the germination success of target and neighbour species. In pots where both the target and neighbour species germinated, we thinned out the target species to one single individual. If the target did not germinate, we transplanted a target species individual from the germination trays. If the neighbour did not germinate, we re-sowed the neighbour species. Pots, in which target and neighbour still did not establish following these measures, were removed from the experiment (see Suppl. material
To measure performance of targets and neighbours, we harvested aboveground biomass by mid-October 2017 (at least 17 weeks after sowing) and dried it at 70 °C for 72 hours before weighing. For the neighbours, we also counted the number of established individuals and the total number of flower heads (capitula) per pot as a proxy for reproductive output. For target individuals, reproductive output was measured more precisely, using the total seed mass produced per individual in each pot. The experimental period was long enough to allow seed production of all target species, whereby approximately two thirds of all target individuals produced seeds. To measure seed production, we collected seeds during the experiment from ideally ten intact capitula of each target individual, from which we determined the average seed mass per capitulum. Before harvesting each target individual at the end of the experiment, we counted the number of its vital capitula, to then calculate the total seed mass produced.
In addition to the experimental data, we collected data on range sizes in Germany for each species. We obtained these data from the database of FlorKart, BfN and NetPhyD Netzwerk Phytodiversität Deutschlands e.V. (www.deutschlandflora.de). This database records species occurrence in each of four quadrants of a grid cell of 10 × 6 arc minutes. We counted the number of occupied quadrants per grid cell for each species. The proportion of occupied cells for each species represents its range size in Germany (
We analysed all data in R v.4.0 (
For the following questions, we conducted all analyses separately for the two different soil types, because biomass production greatly differed between soil types (see “Competition pressure”). Some of the analyses could only be done for the pots with nutrient-poor soil, for which we had considerably more replicates (see Suppl. material
Second, we estimated the competitive effect of each neighbour species on the targets. For each neighbour species separately, square-root-transformed neighbour biomass was regressed against square-root-transformed target biomass (across all five target species), including all data from interspecific competition in the nutrient-poor soil (for species-specific sample sizes, see Suppl. material
To address the third research question of whether interspecific competitive effects influence range size when accounting for MRT, we assessed in another weighted regression model whether per-capita competitive effects influence range size. Range size was defined as the logit-transformed proportion of area occupied in Germany and we included log-transformed MRT as a covariate. Per-capita competitive effects were again derived from the slope of the species-specific regressions described above and we used the inverse of the squared standard error of the slope as weights.
The data underpinning the analysis reported in this paper are deposited in the Dryad Data Repository at https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.qrfj6q5ff.
The number of neighbour individuals in the nutrient-poor soil type ranged between 1 and 22 (median 4, mean 5.1), except for the casual neophyte Callistephus chinensis, which reached up to 53 individuals. Nevertheless, this species was within the range of neighbour biomass covered by other species: neighbour biomass ranged from 0.01–15.6 g (median 4.0 g, mean 4.7 g). In the nutrient-rich soil type, between 1 and 33 (for C. chinensis, up to 42) neighbour individuals established (median 5, mean 6.0). Neighbour biomass in the nutrient-rich soil ranged from 0.21–68.3 g (median 16.2, mean 19.5 g). Target species were usually negatively affected by competition, whereby their biomass production greatly varied depending on neighbour species (see Suppl. material
Establishment success was not affected by the interaction between soil type and invasion status (χ23df = 4.44, P = 0.218), with the full model only explaining 9.9% (marginal R2; 85.7% with random effects, i.e. conditional R2) of variance in the data (Fig.
Performance in intraspecific competition at pot-level depending on invasion status and soil type (left bars in darker colours show the nutrient-poor and right bars in lighter colour the nutrient-rich soil type). Performance is shown as a establishment success (n = 527/156 in the nutrient-poor/nutrient-rich soil type) b square-root-transformed aboveground biomass per pot (n = 451/143) and c total number of capitula per pot (shown on a log-scale, n = 449/143). The asterisks show the mean performance per invasion status group and soil type.
However, the interaction between soil type and invasion status was highly significant for aboveground biomass (Fig.
For number of capitula, the interaction between soil type and invasion status was not significant (Fig.
The models testing the effect of invasion status instead of minimum residence time (MRT) on competitive responses resulted in lower AIC and thus better model performance for both aboveground biomass and total seed mass of native targets in the nutrient-poor soil (Table
Effects of square-root-transformed neighbour biomass on target performance a, b square-root-transformed aboveground biomass (n = 615) and c, d total seed mass (shown on a log-scale, n = 607), depending on a, c minimum residence time (MRT) or b, d invasion status in the nutrient-poor soil. To illustrate the interaction between continuous MRT and neighbour biomass in (a, c), a few representative values were chosen.
Effects of square-root-transformed neighbour biomass on target performance a, b square-root-transformed aboveground biomass (n = 168) and c, d total seed mass (shown on a log-scale, n = 167), depending on a, c minimum residence time (MRT) or b, d invasion status in the nutrient-rich soil. To illustrate the interaction between continuous MRT and neighbour biomass in (a, c), a few representative values were chosen.
Models analysing effects of neighbour biomass on target performance depending on minimum residence time (MRT) or invasion status. For each target performance measure (aboveground biomass and total seed mass, sample sizes for the nutrient-poor and nutrient-rich soil type in parentheses), differences in the Akaike Information Criterion (ΔAIC), explained variance (marginal R2 and, in parentheses, conditional R2) and results of likelihood ratio tests (LRT, χ2 with degrees of freedom and P-values) for the interaction between MRT and neighbour biomass or invasion status and neighbour biomass, are shown. Analyses were done separately for the nutrient-poor and nutrient-rich soil type.
Model | Soil type | Target biomass (n = 615/168) | Target total seed mass (n = 607/167) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ΔAIC | R-squared | LRT | ΔAIC | R-squared | LRT | ||
MRT | Nutrient-poor | 6.12 | 58.4 (71.6) | χ21df = 3.34, | 2.75 | 13.3 (55.6) | χ21df = 0.98, |
P = 0.067 | P = 0.322 | ||||||
Invasion status | Nutrient-poor | 0 | 59.6 (72.4) | (χ23df = 15.67, | 0 | 14.9 (56.0) | χ23df = 5.62, |
P = 0.001 | P = 0.132 | ||||||
MRT | Nutrient-rich | 3.20 | 47.7 (68.4) | χ21df = 3.33, | 0 | 19.1 (47.3) | χ21df = 2.07, |
P = 0.068 | P = 0.150 | ||||||
Invasion status | Nutrient-rich | 0 | 49.6 (72.3) | χ23df = 13.04, | 1.07 | 22.6 (49.6) | χ23df = 7.24, |
P = 0.005 | P = 0.065 |
The regression models to determine competitive effects of the 46 species ranged in R2 from 0.5–87.7% (mean 41.6%, median 41.9%), with 33 species having P-values lower than 0.05 (see Suppl. material
Effects of a minimum residence time or b invasion status on the competitive effect (slope of species-specific regressions). In a size of circles shows the square root of the inverse of the standard error of the slope to illustrate weights of data points. The grey dashed line shows the regression line without weighting for comparison. In b the asterisks show the mean competitive effect per invasion status group (in black, in grey for the model without weighting).
When controlling for the highly significant positive effect of MRT on range size (F1,43 = 69.33, P < 0.001, Fig.
Effects of a minimum residence time (MRT) and b interspecific competitive effect (slope of species-specific regressions) on range size in Germany (model predictions shown with the other explanatory variable fixed at its mean). Size of circles show a, b the square root of the inverse of the standard error of the slope to illustrate weights of data points. The grey dashed lines show regression lines without weighting for comparison.
Our results showed that interspecific competitive ability was generally better explained by categorical invasion status compared to continuous residence time. However, total seed production of targets tended to be less affected by competition with neighbours the longer their potential co-existence times in the nutrient-rich soil. This pattern is consistent with the hypothesis of increasing eco-evolutionary experience (
Invasions provide a natural experiment with which we can test if plant-plant interactions can drive evolution (
The finding that invasion status mostly better explained differences in competitive ability compared to residence time might be because of a priori differences between species types due to an introduction bias. Although invasion status can also serve as a proxy for residence time, our results do not support increasing biotic resistance by native species to newly-introduced species as a mechanism, because we did not find directional effects: archaeophytes generally ranked intermediate, with both natives and established neophytes performing best, whereby native targets showed the lowest tolerance to competition from these two groups. Besides introduction bias, these differences might arise from other eco-evolutionary processes that are more specific to certain invasion status groups (e.g. evolution of increased competitive ability hypothesis,
Most studies to date did not consider casual neophytes. Indeed,
Finally, the archaeophytes had the weakest competitive effects after the casual neophytes and an intermediate rank in terms of the native species tolerance to these neighbours. Archaeophytes generally occur in similar habitats to neophytes, but have quite different introduction histories (
Invasion success may also result from other mechanisms than interspecific competitive superiority. According to the Parker equation, the impact of an invader is the product of abundance, per-capita competitive effects and range sizes (
However, a study on the whole German flora showed that the traits that influence range sizes differed amongst neophytes, archaeophytes and natives (
Using an alien-native species continuum to investigate pairwise competition amongst 47 Asteraceae species, in this study, we found little evidence of directional changes in competitive ability over long timescales. Large-scale invasion success was also not explained by small-scale competitive ability. Further, despite the well justified reasons to argue that human-mediated invasions differ from natural colonisation (
This research was financially supported by the German Research Foundation (grant SH 924/1-1). We are grateful to C. Buchmann, B. Springer, S. Hansen, H. Oliphant and interns from the IAESTE programme for their assistance with the competition experiment.
Supplementary materials
Data type: tables, figures
Explanation note: Appendix 1. Establishment of targets and neighbours. Table S1. The 47 Asteraceae species used in the experiment. Table S2. Linear regressions of species-specific competitive effects of neighbours on the five native target species. Figure S1. Alien-native continuum of the 47 Asteraceae species. Figure S2. Target biomass depending on neighbour species in the nutrient-poor soil. Figure S3. Effects of neighbour biomass on target performance in the control analysis.