Research Article |
Corresponding author: David Renault ( david.renault@univ-rennes1.fr ) Academic editor: Shana McDermott
© 2021 David Renault, Eléna Manfrini, Boris Leroy, Christophe Diagne, Liliana Ballesteros-Mejia, Elena Angulo, Franck Courchamp.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Citation:
Renault D, Manfrini E, Leroy B, Diagne C, Ballesteros-Mejia L, Angulo E, Courchamp F (2021) Biological invasions in France: Alarming costs and even more alarming knowledge gaps. In: Zenni RD, McDermott S, García-Berthou E, Essl F (Eds) The economic costs of biological invasions around the world. NeoBiota 67: 191-224. https://doi.org/10.3897/neobiota.67.59134
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The ever-increasing number of introduced species profoundly threatens global biodiversity. While the ecological and evolutionary consequences of invasive alien species are receiving increasing attention, their economic impacts have largely remained understudied, especially in France. Here, we aimed at providing a general overview of the monetary losses (damages caused by) and expenditures (management of) associated with invasive alien species in France. This country has a long history of alien species presence, partly due to its long-standing global trade activities, highly developed tourism, and presence of overseas territories in different regions of the globe, resulting in a conservative minimum of 2,750 introduced and invasive alien species. By synthesizing for the first time the monetary losses and expenditures incurred by invasive alien species in Metropolitan France and French overseas territories, we obtained 1,583 cost records for 98 invasive alien species. We found that they caused a conservative total amount ranging between US$ 1,280 million and 11,535 million in costs over the period 1993–2018. We extrapolated costs for species invading France, for which costs were reported in other countries but not in France, which yielded an additional cost ranging from US$ 151 to 3,030 millions. Damage costs were nearly eight times higher than management expenditure. Insects, and in particular the Asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus and the yellow fever mosquito Ae. aegypti, totalled very high economic costs, followed by non-graminoid terrestrial flowering and aquatic plants (Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Ludwigia sp. and Lagarosiphon major). Over 90% of alien species currently recorded in France had no costs reported in the literature, resulting in high biases in taxonomic, regional and activity sector coverages. To conclude, we report alarming costs and even more alarming knowledge gaps. Our results should raise awareness of the importance of biosecurity and biosurveillance in France, and beyond, as well as the crucial need for better reporting and documentation of cost data.
法国的生物入侵:造成令人震惊的经济损失和更令人震惊的知识差距
David Renault, Eléna Manfrini, Boris Leroy, Christophe Diagne, Liliana Ballesteros-Mejia, Elena Angulo, Franck Courchamp
快速增加的外来物种已经对全球生物多样性造成了严重威胁。虽然对于外来入侵物种的生态和进化影响受到关注持续增加,但对于外来物种经济影响却很少研究关注,特别是在法国。本项研究评估了法国外来入侵物种造成的直接经济损失和相关管理控制的经济花费。由于长期积极参与全球贸易活动、高度发达的旅游业以及在全球不同地区拥有多个海外领地,所以法国有着悠久的外来物种的引入历史,保守估计至少有2750种外来物种被引入了法国。本研究首次整理法国大都市和法国海外领地的外来入侵物种造成直接经济损失和相关管理支出的资料,我们查询到有关98种外来入侵物种1583条造成经济损失的相关研究。保守估算法国的外来物种在1993–2018年期间造成115.35亿美元的经济损失。对于那些已经入侵到法国但尚未有经济损失数据报道的物种,我们根据它们在其他国家已造成的经济损失估算它们造成的额外经济损失为1.51 至 30.3亿美元。在法国外来入侵物种造成的直接经济损害大约是对外来入侵物种管理控制费用的8倍。在所有外来入侵物种类群中,昆虫造成的非常高的经济损失,尤其是白纹伊蚊(Aedes albopictus)和埃及伊蚊(A. aegypti)。其次是非禾本科的陆生花卉和水生植物,如豚草(Ambrosia artemisiifolia)、蓼科植物(Ludwigia spp)和软骨草(Lagarosiphon major)。目前超过90%的法国外来入侵物种缺乏研究其造成的经济损失,由于外来入侵物种分类类群,分布地区和使用部门不同,所以对其造成经济损失的研究存在很大的不均衡性。因此,我们这项研究报告外来入侵物种在法国造成巨大的经济损失,并存在更加巨大的知识差距。我们研究结果表明应提高对法国及其海外领地生物安全和生物监测重要性,急需更好的研究报告和记录外来入侵物种造成经济损失。
Invasions biologiques en France : des coûts alarmants et des lacunes de connaissances encore plus alarmantes
David Renault, Eléna Manfrini, Boris Leroy, Christophe Diagne, Liliana Ballesteros-Mejia, Elena Angulo, Franck Courchamp
La croissance ininterrompue de transport et d'introduction d'espèces menace dangereusement la biodiversité mondiale. Bien que les conséquences éco-évolutives liées à la présence d'espèces exotiques envahissantes fassent l'objet d'un nombre d'études de plus en plus conséquent, les impacts économiques générés par les invasions biologiques restent insuffisamment étudiés, notamment en France. Dans cette étude, nous présentons une vue générale des pertes monétaires (dommages, dégâts) et des dépenses (gestion) induites par les espèces exotiques envahissantes en France. Ce pays dispose d'une longue histoire de présence d'espèces exotiques en raison d'importantes activités de commerce international de longue date, d'un tourisme fortement développé, et de nombreux territoires d'outre-mer dans différentes régions du monde; ceci contribue à expliquer l'estimation conservatrice de la présence de 2750 espèces exotiques (introduites ou envahissantes) en France. En synthétisant pour la première fois les pertes monétaires et les dépenses induites par la présence des espèces exotiques envahissantes en France métropolitaine et dans ses territoires d'outre-mer, nous avons pu identifier 1583 données de coûts concernant 98 espèces exotiques envahissantes. Nous avons estimé que les espèces exotiques envahissantes ont généré un montant conservateur de 1280 à 11535 millions $US sur la période 1993–2018. Nous avons extrapolé les coûts pour les espèces envahissant la France, pour lesquelles des données de coûts existent dans le monde mais pas en France, ce qui a abouti à un coût additionnel compris entre 151 et 3 030 millions $US. Les coûts des dégâts étaient 8 fois plus élevés que les coûts liés aux dépenses de gestion. Les insectes, en particulier le moustique tigre, Aedes albopictus, et le moustique de la fièvre jaune, Ae. Aegypti, génèrent les coûts économiques les plus importants, suivis par les plantes à fleurs terrestres et les plantes aquatiques (Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Ludwigia sp. et Lagarosiphon major). Plus de 90% des espèces exotiques actuellement enregistrées en France ne font l'objet d'aucune mention de coût dans la littérature, ce qui traduit un fort biais taxonomique, et un fort biais de couvertures régionale et sectorielle des impacts de ces espèces. En conclusion, notre étude pointe des coûts alarmants et des lacunes de connaissances entre plus grandes au regard des impacts financiers liés aux espèces exotiques envahissantes. Nos résultats doivent alerter sur l'importance de la biosécurité et de la biosurveillance en France et, au-delà, sur le besoin crucial d'une meilleure documentation et d'une meilleure compilation des données de coût.
Invasiones biológicas en Francia: Alarmantes costos y lagunas de conocimiento aún más alarmantes.
David Renault, Eléna Manfrini, Boris Leroy, Christophe Diagne, Liliana Ballesteros-Mejia, Elena Angulo, Franck Courchamp
El número cada vez mayor de especies introducidas amenaza profundamente la biodiversidad mundial. Si bien las consecuencias ecológicas y evolutivas de las especies exóticas invasoras (EEI) están recibiendo cada vez más atención, sus impactos económicos han permanecido poco estudiados, especialmente en Francia. Nuestro objetivo en este artículo, fue proporcionar una descripción general de las pérdidas monetarias (daños causados por) y los gastos (gestión de) asociados con las especies exóticas invasoras en Francia. Este país tiene una larga historia de presencia de especies exóticas, debido a su tradición de actividades comerciales en todo el mundo, su turismo altamente desarrollado y presencia de territorios de ultramar en diferentes regiones del mundo, lo que nos lleva a tener un mínimo conservador de 2.750 especies exóticas introducidas e invasoras.
Esta primera síntesis de las pérdidas monetarias y los gastos incurridos por las EEI en la Francia metropolitana y sus territorios de ultramar, arrojó un total de 1.583 registros de costos para 98 especies exóticas invasoras. También descubrimos que durante el período de 1993 a 2018, las EEI causaron un monto total conservador de entre US $ 1.280 millones y 11.535 millones en costos. Extrapolamos los costos de las especies que invaden Francia, cuyos costos se reportaron en otros países pero no en Francia, lo que generó un costo adicional que oscila entre los 151 y los 3.030 millones de dólares. Los costos de daños fueron alrededor de 8 veces más altos que los gastos de gestión. Los insectos, y en particular el mosquito tigre asiático Aedes albopictus y el mosquito de la fiebre amarilla Ae. aegypti, sumaron costos económicos muy altos, seguidos de plantas acuáticas y de flores terrestres no gramíneas (p. ej. Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Ludwigia sp. y Lagarosiphon major). Más del 90% de las especies exóticas registradas actualmente en Francia no tienen costos reportados en la literatura, lo que resulta en un alto sesgo en cuanto a la cobertura taxonómica, regional y en sectores socioeconómicos. En conclusión, reportamos costos alarmantes y lagunas de conocimiento aún más alarmantes. Nuestros resultados deberían crear conciencia sobre la importancia de la bioseguridad y el biocontrol en Francia y más allá, así como sobre la necesidad crucial de mejorar la calidad de la información y la documentación de los datos de costos sobre especies invasoras.
Биологические инвазии во Франции: тревожные убытки и еще более тревожные пробелы в знаниях
David Renault, Eléna Manfrini, Boris Leroy, Christophe Diagne, Liliana Ballesteros-Mejia, Elena Angulo, Franck Courchamp
Постоянный рост числа интродуцированных видов серьезно угрожает глобальному биоразнообразию. Хотя экологическим и эволюционным последствиям инвазий чужеродных видов уделяется огромное внимание, экономические потери от их деятельности в значительной степени остаются недостаточно изученными, особенно во Франции. Мы представляем обзор экономических потерь (в результате причиненных повреждений) и расходов на контроль инвазионных чужеродных видов во Франции. Эта страна имеет долгую историю присутствия на ее территории чужеродных видов, отчасти из-за давней глобальной торговой деятельности, высокоразвитого туризма и наличия заморских французских территорий в разных регионах земного шара. Сегодня во Франции насчитывается 2750 интродуцированных и инвазионных чужеродных видов. Мы впервые обобщили данные по экономическим потерям в результате инвазий чужеродных видов во Франции и на ее заморских территориях, проанализировав 1583 позиции убытков в результате инвазий 98 чужеродного вида. В 1993–2018 гг. эти виды причинили ущерб на общую сумму 11,535 млн долларов США. Мы экстраполировали затраты на виды, вторгшиеся во Францию (расходы по которым были известны по другим странам, но не для Франции), что увеличило денежные потери в диапазоне от 151 до 3030 миллионов долларов США. Экономические потери в результате причиненных повреждений (прямые убытки) были в 8 раз выше, чем затраты на контроль инвайдеров. Насекомые, в частности, азиатский тигровый комар Aedes albopictus и желтолихорадочный комар Aedes aegypti, являлись причиной самых высоких экономических потерь; за ними следовали травянистые (кроме злаков, бобовых и осоковых) и водные растения (Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Ludwigia sp. и Lagarosiphon major). Для более чем 90 % зарегистрированных во Франции чужеродных видов в литературе отсутствуют сведения об экономических потерях, что не может не сказываться на точности оценок экономических ущербов при анализе таксономических групп, регионов и секторов экономики. Таким образом, мы сообщаем о тревожных убытках и еще более тревожных пробелах в знаниях. Наши результаты должны повысить осведомленность о важности биологической безопасности и надзора за инвайдерами во Франции и за ее пределами, а также о необходимости улучшения отчетности и документирования экономических потерь.
ملخص
.الغزو البيولوجي في فرنسا: تكاليف مقلقة وفجوات معرفية مفزعة
يشكل النمو المستمر في النقل وإدخال الأنواع تهديدًا خطيرًا للتنوع البيولوجي العالمي. وعلى الرغم من أن نتائج التطور الإيكولوجي لوجود "الأنواع الغازية" هي موضوع عدد متزايد من الدراسات، فإن الآثار الاقتصادية الناجمة عن الغزو البيولوجي لا تزال غير مدروسة بما فيه الكفاية، لا سيما في فرنسا. نقدم في هذه الدراسة لمحة عامة عن التكلفة المالية للأضرار والخسائر ونفقات التسيير التي تسببها الأنواع الغازية في فرنسا. لهذه الدولة تاريخ طويل فيما يخص تواجد الأنواع "الدخيلة" بسبب الأنشطة التجارية الدولية المهمة والطويلة الأمد، والسياحة المتطورة وامتدادها في العديد من الأقاليم "ما وراء البحار" المتواجدة في مناطق مختلفة من العالم؛ يساعد كل هذا في تفسير "التقديرات المتحفظة" لوجود 2750 نوعًا غازيًا في فرنسا. من خلال تجميعنا لأول مرة لمختلف الخسائر المالية والنفقات الناتجة عن وجود الأنواع الغازية في فرنسا وأقاليمها "ما وراء البحار"، استطعنا تحديد 1583 بيان تكلفة يتعلق بـ 98 صنفا مختلفا. ولقد قدرنا التكلفة الإجمالية للأنواع الغازية في 11535 مليون دولار أمريكي خلال الفترة 1993-2018. ومن خلال استقرائنا لتكاليف الأنواع التي تغزو فرنسا، والتي توجد بيانات عنها في العالم ولكن ليس في فرنسا، فإن هناك تكلفة إضافية تتراوح بين 151 و3030 مليون دولار أمريكي. إضافة إلى ذلك، فإن التكاليف الناتجة عن الأضرار كانت أعلى 8 مرات من تكاليف مصاريف التسيير. وقد جاءت الحشرات، وخاصة بعوضة النمر وبعوضة الحمى الصفراء في الرتبة الأولى من حيث التكلفة الاقتصادية، تليها النباتات الزهرية الأرضية والنباتات المائية. وكان من اللافت أن أكثر من 90% من الأنواع الدخيلة المسجلة حاليًا في فرنسا لم تتم الإشارة إلى تكلفتها الاقتصادية في المراجع المعتمدة، مما يعكس وجود تحيز قوي لا من الناحية التصنيفية ولا من ناحية التغطية الإقليمية والقطاعية لتأثيرات هذه الأنواع. في الختام، نبلغ في هذه الدراسة عن تكاليف مقلقة وفجوات معرفية مهولة فيما يهم الاثار المالية المرتبطة بالأنواع الغازية. كما نأمل أن تزيد هذه النتائج في نسبة الوعي بأهمية الأمن البيولوجي والرصد البيولوجي في فرنسا .وخارجها، وتساهم في تحسين عملية توثيق وتجميع مختلف بيانات التكاليف
damage costs, economic threat, exotic, InvaCost, invasive alien species, management costs, non-indigenous, non-native
Biological invasions, alongside climate change, pollution, habitats destruction and overexploitation, are direct drivers of change and loss in biodiversity (
The accumulating evidence of the environmental impacts generated by biological invasions worldwide has considerably increased the attention of researchers towards invasive alien species over the years. In particular, databases documenting invasive alien species distributions are flourishing (e.g.,
To date, previous studies have suggested very high economic costs, i.e. damage and losses (e.g., damage repair, medical care, value of crop losses) incurred by an invasion, or means dedicated to understand or predict (research), prevent (education, biosecurity), early detect (monitoring, surveillance) and/or manage (control, eradication) invasive alien species. For instance, the global cost averages at about US$ 76 billion per year globally for invasive insects (
In this context, a general overview of the monetary losses and expenditures associated with invasive species is urgently needed for France. This national cost assessment would be particularly important to fully capture the complex and diverse nature of costs incurred by biological invaders. To that aim, we synthesised for the first time the economic costs of invasive alien species in France (Metropolitan France and French overseas) over a large time range. Then, we calculated the total economic costs caused by invasive alien species in France, and, using annualised cost values, examined how these costs have evolved over time. To obtain a comprehensive insight on the nature of the monetary impacts, we then examined the repartition of costs among different economic sectors and across French regions. Finally, we identified the distribution of economic costs across taxonomic groups of invasive alien species, and established a list of the costliest invasive alien species in France.
To estimate the costs of biological invasions in France, we benefited from the InvaCost initiative (
The InvaCost version 3.0 incorporates the cost data we collected when specifically searching for costs of invasive alien species in France. Indeed, we performed a double-stage strategy for collating more cost information for our study. First, monetized impacts of invasions were collected by screening the available literature containing invasion costs in the research engines Web of science and Google scholar. The topic search was restricted to the literature published in either English or French, with no timespan restriction. Second, we gathered additional – often unpublished – cost estimates from active communication efforts with conservation managers and practitioners to collect information that we may have missed with more traditional searches. Specifically, we (i) directly contacted the French coordinator of IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), the French Invasive Alien Species Resource Center (“Centre des Ressources Espèces Exotiques Envahissantes”), the National Botanical Conservatory (“Conservatoire Botanique National”), the Conservatories of Natural Spaces (“Conservatoires d’Espaces Naturels”) and their federation; and (ii) circulated a request among managers from French reserves and protected territories in order to collate specific cost data from these areas.
For the analyses, we filtered the InvaCost version 3.0 by the “Official country” descriptor to get the entries corresponding to France (Suppl. material
Cost information could be reported for a single year in some documents, while it was occurring over several successive years in other studies. Therefore, we expanded the assembled French dataset to standardise all cost entries to yearly estimates using the expandYearlyCosts function of the invacost R package (
To describe the patterns of invasive alien species costs in France, and their impacts on different sectors, we used different descriptors of the cost entries. First, we focused on the type of costs (column “Type of cost merged”) which categorises the cost reported as: ‘Damage’ referring to damages or losses incurred by the invasion (e.g., costs for damage repair, resource losses, medical care), or ‘Management’ comprising expenditure such as control, monitoring, prevention, or eradication of invasive alien species. For the analyses pertaining to these cost categories, we classified as ‘mixed’ the cases where the specific nature of the reported costs was unclear, i.e. when it was not possible to separately attribute monetary values to either damages or management of invasive alien species. Second, we explored socio-economic sectors (column “Impacted sector”), which were classified into seven major categories reflecting the main activity, societal or market sectors impacted by costs (see Suppl. material
For the distribution of costs among taxa, we used the taxonomic information as reported in the InvaCost database. However, to understand how the different socio-economic sectors were impacted by invasive alien species, we also applied taxonomic groupings in combination with environment of the invasive species causing the cost (e.g., “terrestrial mammal”, “aquatic arthropod”, “semi-aquatic bird”). The list of environment-taxonomic groupings is available in Suppl. material
To provide an InvaCost-based list of the costliest invasive species currently documented in France (i.e. those that had economic impacts exceeding US$ 1 million in the period 1993–2018), the “Species” column was reclassified (i) to merge costs assigned to multiple species within the category diverse/unspecified, and (ii) to aggregate by genus all species with cost estimates provided at both the species and the genus level (i.e., Impatiens glandulifera and Impatiens spp.; Ludwigia grandiflora, L. peploides, Ludwigia spp., and Ludwigia sp., Rattus norvegicus, Rattus sp. and Rattus spp.; and Reynoutria japonica and Reynoutria sp.). Then, the geographic origin of the costliest invaders was collected from the Global Invasive Species Database (GISD 2020) and from the GRIIS (
To present a regional mapping of economic costs incurred by invasive alien species in metropolitan France and French overseas territories, data were filtered per region (column “Location”, Suppl. material
We also provide a coarse approximation of the potential costs of invasive alien species known to occur in France, but without cost data for France in InvaCost version 3.0, with a two-step extrapolation procedure based on available data. First, to identify the species reported from France that have no cost data, we collected (i) 2,750 introduced and invasive species with accepted scientific names from the GRIIS (Suppl. material
All analyses were conducted in R 4.0.2 (R Development Core Team 2020). We used the invacost R package (
In a first step, the InvaCost database reported initially only 28 cost entries from 16 English-written articles. Then, our complementary search made using French as a language (
Invasive alien species incurred a total amount of US$ 11,535 million in France over the period 1993–2018, with an average of US$ 444 million annually (Figure
The number of cost entries per year was also the highest in this period (2009–2012), ranging from 168 to 283 entries per year. There were only 13 costs reported before 2000, and these documents only reported low cost values. The temporal trend in costs suggested that costs continuously increased from 1993 to 2012, and decreased afterwards. This decrease after 2012 is, however, concomitant with the decrease in the number of reported cost estimates and indicative of a time lag in cost reporting (see Suppl. material
Presentation of the costs incurred by invasive alien species in France over the period 1993–2018 A total cost values (in 2017 US$) per year of invasive alien species in metropolitan France and French overseas territories. The reported amounts are calculated from observed costs (orange), or from both observed (i.e. incurred) and potential (i.e. predicted to occur) costs (green). Each point represents the cumulative cost for a given year; the size of each point is proportional to the number of estimates for that year. Average annual costs for 4-year periods are represented by squares and horizontal solid lines; dashed lines connect the average annual costs across these 4-year periods B temporal changes in observed costs (2017 value) for ‘Damage-Loss’ (simplified as Damage in the figure legend) vs. ‘Management’ (control, monitoring, prevention, management, and eradication of alien invasive species) costs.
As most of the costs started to be reported from the early 2000s in France, the paucity of information makes it impossible to obtain a comprehensive picture of how damage and management costs impacted the different sectors over time. Before 2000, it can only be mentioned that costs corresponded to damage and loss only, without any management expenditure. From 2000 to 2018, observed damage costs were almost always higher than observed management costs. For the most complete time period (2009–2012), observed damage costs were in general characterised by amounts 7–8 times higher than those observed costs documented for management, totalling to US$ 732million for ‘Damage-Loss’ costs vs. US$ 98 million for ‘Management’ costs (Figure
Four activity sectors were mainly impacted by invasive alien species in France over the time range (1993–2018) from which cost information was obtained: Health (US$ 324 million; cumulative cost), Agriculture (US$ 258 million) and Authorities and Stakeholders (US$ 230 million) (Figure
Cumulative costs (in 2017 US$ million) incurred to each sector per major group of invaders in France in the period 1993–2018. The “Mixed” sector indicates that two or more sectors were economically impacted by invasive alien species. Note that diverse/unspecified groups of invaders were excluded, as well as groups of invaders whose cumulative impact was less than US$ 1 million over the duration of the period (1993–2018).
The reported economic costs and the number of associated species greatly varied among the different French regions, both metropolitan and overseas (Figure
Gradient map of the cumulated numbers of invasive alien species and of total economic costs (US$ million) recorded from each region of metropolitan France (and French overseas territories on the right) over the period 1993–2018. When the impacted region of the cost was not specified, it was mapped as ‘France undetermined’.
The analysis of economic costs across taxonomic groups revealed that invasive alien plants and invertebrates accounted for most of the reported costs in France (Figure
The costliest invasive alien species in France are presented in Table
Cumulative costs (in 2017 US$) by taxonomic groups of invasive alien species in France over the time range 1993–2018 for A observed cost amounts and B both observed and potential costs. The “Multi-taxa costs” group refers to entries that presented costs without separating the different taxa.
Representation of the geographic origin of the costliest invasive alien species in France over the period 1993–2018 (all those >1 million in cumulated cost). Some of the costliest invaders have multiple continental origins. The coloured bar on the right part of the figure shows the number of species for each continental area (North and South Americas, Arctic, Africa, Europe, Asia, Oceania). See Table
Listing of the costliest invasive alien species in France (> 1 million in observed cumulated costs).
Species/Genus | Common name | Sum of cost US$2017 | Geographic Origin |
---|---|---|---|
Ambrosia artemisiifolia | Common ragweed | 551 261 394 | North America |
Aedes aegypti | Yellow fever mosquito | 333 089 505 | Africa |
Aedes albopictus | Asian tiger mosquito | 128 523 816 | Asia |
Ambrosia polystachya | Cuman ragweed | 70 588 450 | South America |
Ludwigia spp. | Water primrose | 35 226 942 | America |
Rusa timorensis | Javan rusa | 8 300 398 | Asia |
Rattus spp. | Rats | 2 811 942 | Asia |
Vespa velutina | Yellow legged-hornet | 2 588 307 | Asia |
Reynoutria spp. | Knotweed | 2 090 356 | Asia |
Lagarosiphon major | African elodea | 1 605 914 | Africa |
Lithobates catesbeianus | American bullfrog | 1 594 127 | North America |
Procambarus clarkii | Red swamp crayfish | 1 394 047 | North America |
Felis catus | Feral cat | 1 258 480 | Africa |
Baccharis halimifolia | Eastern baccharis | 1 104 942 | North America |
We found that costs in France represent a small proportion of worldwide species costs, weakly increasing with the global cost value (observed and potential costs:
costFrance = 0.172 × cost(Global–France) + 3.500;
observed costs only:
costFrance = 0.163 × cost(Global–France) + 3.462).
We used these relationships to make a first extrapolation of the costs of species known to occur in France, with cost data available worldwide, but no recorded costs in France, which resulted in an estimation of an additional US$ 3,030 million for both observed and potential costs, and US$ 151 millions when only considering observed costs.
Based on 1,583 records for 98 invasive alien species, we found that biological invasions incurred a total cost ranging between US$ 1,280 (only observed, incurred costs considered) and 11,535 (observed and potential costs) million in France over the period 1993–2018. These values are likely underestimated since we considered only highly reliable costs and cost data were missing for the vast majority (97.6%) of invasive species in France. If we add to these numbers our coarse extrapolations of missing cost data, the total cost would range between US$ 1,431 million (only observed costs) and 14,565 million (observed and potential costs). However, even these rough extrapolations still do not account for over 90% of the species invading France, for which there is no cost information whatsoever. The highest recorded costs correspond to the period 2009–2012, and overall most were damage and loss costs, with relatively few costs corresponding to management expenditures. Many regions had very little information on economic costs of biological invasions, whether in metropolitan France or in French overseas territories. The fractionary nature of the existing data pointed to aquatic insects (mosquitoes, in particular Aedes sp.) and terrestrial forbs (non-graminoid herbaceous flowering plants, in particular Ambrosia sp.) as belonging to the costliest invasive alien species in France, both severely impacting the human health sector. Yet, many more species had high costs in different sectors.
The economic costs incurred by invasive alien species in France greatly increased in the period 2009–2012. We suggest that the increasing consideration of biological invasions in France and elsewhere in the past years (decades), and the improved awareness of invasive species and biodiversity, may have contributed to explaining this pattern. In particular, the ‘Delivering alien invasive species in Europe’ initiative over the period 2002–2006 (
A large majority of the economic costs caused by invasive alien species in France are related to damages and losses. Regarding damages and losses, infrastructures and recreational activities were frequently reported as some of the sectors impacted by invasive alien species. As already reported in other countries, biological invasions can greatly interfere with recreational activities in France (
In this study, non-graminoid terrestrial flowering and aquatic plants totalled the highest economic costs followed by invertebrates, and more particularly insects. Five plants totalling a large proportion of the costs: Ambrosia spp., Ludwigia spp., B. halimifolia, Reynoutria spp., and L. major. Ambrosia and Ludwigia were also among the most costliest species in Europe (
The curly waterweed L. major was introduced for aquariophilie and was first observed outdoors in France after the Second World War. By quickly forming very dense beds in ponds and lakes, this submergent plant has strong ecological (extirpation of native hydrophytes, accelerated sedimentation, enhanced transparency of the water), recreational (boating activities, fishing) and industrial (hydroelectric plants) impacts. As part of the invasive alien species list of EU concern (
Following plants, invertebrates (and in particular Insects) constitute the second costliest invasive alien taxonomic group in France. Among them, members of the Culicidae family, including the Asian tiger mosquito A. albopictus and the yellow fever mosquito A. aegypti, represent growing threats to human populations, due to being harmful mosquitoes swarming in both urban and peri-urban landscapes (
In the context of global warming, another alien insect species could further expand its range in France, and could potentially have huge monetary impacts: the pinewood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. As several entries corresponded to potential costs for this species in InvaCost, and because we worked with entries of high reliability only, relatively low costs are reported from the pinewood nematode in France in our work. Meanwhile,
The Asian hornet, accidentally introduced in southwestern France in 2004, is the second costliest insect genus (after Aedes sp.) in France. This species has colonised urban, agricultural and forest areas, and continues its expansion throughout Europe (
Overall, our study revealed very high economic costs of biological invasions, and yet, they remain very conservative, for several reasons. First, we remained conservative here and used only highly reliable cost entries. Second, many existing costs are simply unknown, or unreported, because the scientific literature reporting the economic consequences of biological invasions is still in its infancy in France, as evidenced by the 3% of currently introduced or invasive species having cost entries in InvaCost in France (
As reported elsewhere (e.g., IUCN 2018), direct contacts with academic and non-academic actors had here too proven the most efficient means of retrieving cost information, and partially resolved the issue of the paucity of publicly available cost information. By using phone calls, e-mailing, and by circulating questionnaires, we have been able to collect the majority of cost information (1,106 cost entries collected from 39 documents, as compared with 26 cost entries with the classical InvaCost Database search), revealing that even if cost data were poorly documented in France and overseas territories, those data do exist as grey literature. High percentages of non-English costs were also reported in other countries, such as in Spain or Japan (98%,
The paucity of literature reporting the monetary impacts of invasive alien species in France is problematic, as it results in decision-makers failing to be convinced at local and national levels of the need to make investments towards improving our understanding of ecological and economic impacts linked with invasion. The absence of more quantitative studies on costs is startling, as many introduced populations present very serious risks to public health in France, including the allergenic common ragweed and the irritant giant hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum), both of which mobilize significant economic resources for their control (
Our knowledge of the ecological effects of invasive alien species is progressing constantly (
The authors acknowledge the French National Research Agency (ANR-14-CE02-0021) and the BNP-Paribas Foundation Climate Initiative for funding the InvaCost project that allowed the construction of the InvaCost database. The present work was conducted following a workshop funded by the AXA Research Fund Chair of Invasion Biology and is part of the AlienScenarios project funded by BiodivERsA and Belmont-Forum call 2018 on biodiversity scenarios. Funds for EA and LBM contracts come from the AXA Research Fund Chair of Invasion Biology. CD was funded by the BiodivERsA-Belmont Forum Project “Alien Scenarios” (BMBF/PT DLR 01LC1807C). We thank Ross Cuthbert for thoroughly editing the English of this manuscript. The authors thank Ahmed Taheri, Natalia Kirichenko, and Weng Xiong, for the Arabic, Russian and Chinese abstracts, respectively. DR is funded by the ASICS project (ANR-20-EBI5-0004, BiodivERsA, BiodivClim call 2019–2020), the French Polar Institute Paul-Emile Victor (Project IPEV 136 ‘Subanteco’); he thanks the national nature reserve of the French southern lands (RN-TAF). The authors would like to thank InEE-CNRS who greatly contributed to the structuration of the Biological Invasions’ research topic by supporting the national network Biological Invasions (Groupement de Recherche InvaBio, 2014–2022). The authors thank Marie Chauris for assistance when shaping and revising Suppl. materials
Datasets of the economic costs of invasive alien species in France and descriptive variables (from
Data type: Description of the structure of the database
Explanation note: Spreadsheet 'DB-Descriptor': summary of the content of the descriptive columns of the database used in this study (from
Description of the different sectors of the InvaCost database
Data type: Description of the structure of the database
Listing of the environment-taxonomic groupings
Data type: Description of the structure of the database
Listing of the 2750 introduced or invasive alien species with accepted names in France
Data type: listing of Invasive Alien Species
Explanation note: Data were extracted from the Global Register of Introduced and Invasive Species database.
Number of cost estimates per year for France
Data type: cost data
Explanation note: The dashed line illustrates the sudden decrease in the number of cost estimates after 2013.
Categorical representation of the cumulated costs caused by invasive alien species in metropolitan France and French overseas over the period 1993–2018
Data type: distribution of costs incurred by Invasive Alien Species
Explanation note: Categorical representation of the cumulated costs caused by invasive alien species in metropolitan France and French overseas over the period 1993–2018 per (a) activity sectors, (b) cost types, and (c) taxonomic groups. Pie charts show the cost contribution of alien invasive species to the different categories; inner circle shows information based on all costs (i.e. observed and potential costs), whereas the outer circle restricts the information to the costliest invaders ((i.e. observed costs > 1 US$ million) from France (Aedes sp., Ambrosia sp., Lagorasiphon sp., Lithobates catesbeianus, Ludwigia sp., Procambarus clarkii, Rattus sp., Reynoutria sp., Rusa timorensis russa, Vespa velutina, Felis catus, Baccharis halimifolia).
For each French region, listing of the taxa for which we had cost information in the InvaCost database over the time range 1993–2018
Data type: occurences
List of the 68 invasive alien species in metropolitan France for which no economic cost was documented in our database
Data type: Listing of Invasive Alien Species
Explanation note: The potential costs incurred by these 68 invasive alien species in France were estimated from cost data obtained from other countries (see Material and methods).